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A TREATISE ON STEEL: 



COMPRISING 



ITS THEORY, METALLURGY, PROPERTIES, 
PRACTICAL WORKING. AND USE. 



/BY 

M. H. C. V LANDBIN, Jr., 

CIVIL ENGINEER. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH, WITH NOTES, 



By A. A. FESQUET, 

CHEMIST AND ENGINEER. 



WITH AN 

APPENDIX 

ON THE 
BESSEMER AND THE MARTIN PROCESSES FOR MANUFACTURING STEEL, 

FROM THE 

REPORT OF ABBAM S HEWITT, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER 
TO THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, PARIS, 1807. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
II ENRY CAREY BAIRD 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 

406 Walnut Street. 

LONDON: 

TRUBNER & CO., 

60 Paternoster Row. 

1868. 




4 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United Stntes for the 
Eastern District of the State of Pennsylvania. 




PHILADELPHIA : 
COLLIN'S, PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. 



U~/8 



TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE 



Not many years ago, when the uses of steel 
were confined to the manufacture of tools, 
cutting instruments, etc., there were few quali- 
ties of steel ; and cast steel, tilted steel, and 
some German steels especially employed for 
the manufacture of files, scythes, etc., were 
the only compounds of iron and carbon known 
under the name of steel. 

The enormous progress made recently in 
iron metallurgy and in metallic constructions, 
has prompted the employment in large quan- 
tities of new kinds of steel, endowed with 
properties of resistance and flexibility hitherto 
unknown and unsuspected, and at a cheapness 
of cost which has allowed their use for rails, 
large pieces of machinery, railroad tires, plates 
for boilers, ships, bridges, etc. 



iv translator's preface. 

These improvements are due to the energy 
of some inventors, and to their complete 
knowledge of the nature and composition of 
the metal with which they were working. 
The scientific principles by which their efforts 
were directed were the same, the methods to 
arrive at the result were different. 

These new steels, whose properties were so 
different from those hitherto known, made 
many persons inquire if they were really 
steels, or some particular kinds of iron. This 
depends on definitions : we shall call them 
steels, if we continue to consider as — 

Iron, the fibrous or granular metal known 
under that name, combined with a trace of 
carbon (all commercial irons contain carbon), 
and which cannot be hardened by the harden- 
ing process. 

Steel, the combination of iron with an aver- 
age of one per cent, of carbon, which can be 
hardened and melted. 

Pig iron, the combination of iron with three 



translator's preface. V 

to five per cent, of carbon, which can be melted, 
and possesses scarcely any malleability. 

A very small change in the proportion of 
carbon will affect the properties of steel, which 
will be exemplified in the course of this work. 
Nevertheless, Mr. Landrin takes cast steel as 
a type, because of all known steels its proper- 
ties and composition are the most constant. 

Beginning with a history of steel, the Au- 
thor next examines the various fuels employed 
in metallurgy, the substances which in the ore 
and the fuel are capable of influencing the 
qualities of iron and steel, the different ores 
in use, and then passes to the theory of the 
formation of steel, with citations from a work 
on steel by Reaumur, published in 1722. This 
ancient work may be read with advantage 
even at the present day, as pointing to the 
futility of certain secrets and mixtures for 
making steel, by which many persons are yet 
deceived. 

The theory of the formation of steel is fol- 
lowed by a method of quantitative analysis for 



VI 



iron, steel, or pig metal, by the metallurgy of 
natural, puddled, cast steel, and Wootz steel, 
special attention being given to the manufac- 
ture of pots for casting, and by the new pro- 
cesses known under the names of Chenot, Bes- 
semer, Uchatius, etc. 

After examining certain mixtures of steel 
with other metals, Mr. Landrin, Jr., fully ex- 
plains the various operations by which steel is 
welded, hardened, and tempered ; and finally 
describes some of the uses to which steel is 
applied, such as the manufacture of files, steel 
wire, steel plates, needles, and saws. 

Within a small compass, Mr. Landrin gives 
an insight into the whole question of the 
manufacture of steel. Formerly, the steel 
manufacturer had only to buy some w 7 ell- 
known mark of iron, cement and cast it ; but 
the present state of steel industry, where the 
pig iron is sometimes run directly from the 
blast furnace into the converter, requires a 
knowledge of the ores and fuels employed for 
producing the raw metal. 



TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. Vll 

To extend the knowledge of a metal so 
necessary as steel, has been the aim of the 
Author, and we hope our readers will find 
this book useful to them. 

In order to convey an idea of the present 
state of steel industry, we have added some 
extracts from the valuable report made by Mr. 
Abram S. Hewitt, U. S. Commissioner to the 
Universal Exposition at Paris, 1867. 

Philadelphia, August 1, 1868. 



CONTENTS 



The figures refer to the numbers of the paragraphs. 



INTRODUCTION. 



HISTORY OF STEEL. 



Discovery of Steel 

First Furnaces of the He- 
brews 

The Chinese 

The Greeks, Homer 

Scarcity of Steel 

Bronze 

JEthalia 

The Chalybes 



Furnaces 

Fuel in Use 

Knowledge of Pit Coal 

Knowledge of Pig Iron 

Iron and Steel in Egypt and 

Arabia 

First Iron Bedstead 

Corporation of Blacksmiths ... 

Ores Known at that Time 

Progress of Iron and Steel .... 
Invention of the Hammer and 

Anvil 

Invention of the bellows 

Manufactures in Palestine 

Greek colonies 

Discovery of metals 

Iron coins 

The Phoenicians 



Metallurgy in iEthalia 25 

First alloy of iron and bronze 26 

Roman metallurgists 27 

The Moors of Spain 28 

Ancient Bilbilis 29 

Germany 30 

Ores employed then 31 

Use of fluxes 32 

Blowing machines 33 

Pig iron unknown to Agricola 34 
Determination of the time of 

its use 35 

First blast furnace 36 

Blast furnaces in France 37 

Fluss ofen in India 38 

Cast iron employed in England 39 
Eastern countries the birth- 
place of steel 40 

First cementation of iron...... 41 

Sheffield cutlery 42 

Introduction of cast steel in 

England 43 

Puddled steel invented in Ca- 

rinthia 44 

Progress of steel works in 

France 45 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 



I. Heat. 

Expansion 46 

Fusion 47 

Colorations by heat 48 

Unit of heat 49 



II. Oxygen. 

Its affinity for iron 50 

Metallic sponge (Chenot's) 51 

Protoxide of iron (Ferrous ox- 
ide) 52 



CONTENTS. 



Peroxide of iron (ferric oxide) 

Affinity for carbon 

Reactions of carbon and oxy- 
gen 

Working of the blast furnace.. 
Oxidation of steel 

III. Sulthur. 

Its action upon steel 

Process for removing sulphur 

from ores 

How to avoid it in fuels 

Action of rain and air 

IV. Phosphorus. 

Its action upon steel 

It combines with sulphur 



V. Water. 
Its importance in metallurgy 

Its yield in oxygen 

Steam 

Its action on sulphur 

Its action on silicon 

Decrepitation 

Its hygrometric state 



62' 
63 

64 
65 
66 

67 j 

68 

69| 



VI. Lime. 
Its action as an oxide. 
Its action as a metal .. 



VII. Iron Ores. 

Importance of their know- 
ledge 

Their definition 

Their varieties 

How to distinguish them 

§ 1. Carbonate of iron 

Lithoid iron 

Spathic iron 

Analyses 

Superoxidation 

§ 2. Oligist iron 

Its varieties 

Analyses 

Red haematite 

Its transformation into red 
chalk 

Its yield 

Presence of manganese 

§ 3. Magnetic iron 



70 



Swedish irons 90 

Analysis of pig metal 91 

§ 4. Hydrated oxide of iron.. 92 

Brown hajmatite - 93 

Varieties of this ore 94 

VIII. Fuels. 

Definition 95 

Their importance in metal- 
lurgy 96 

Carbon 97 

Varieties of fuels 98 

Constituent principles 99 

Carbon and hydrogen 100 

Ashes of mineral fuels 101 

Ashes of vegetable fuels 102 

§ 1. Wood 103 

Lignine 104 

Calorific power 105 

Woods divided into two classes 106 

Comparative value 107 

§ 2. Charcoal 108 

Object of carbonization 109 

Age of the wood to be felled.. 110 

Proper time for felling Ill 

Methods of carbonization 112 

Carbonization in heaps 113 

Comparison of the products... 114 

Conduct of the operation 115 

Red charcoal 116 

Rapidity of the carbonization 117 
Calorific value of charcoals.... 118 

Composition of charcoal 119 

Density and weight 120 

Yield in alkalies 121 

§ 3. Pit coal 122 

Various kinds of coal 123 

Certain kinds of coals natural- 
ly distilled 124 

Comparative composition 125 

Calorific power 126 

Weights 127 

Yield in sulphur 128 

§ 4. Coke 129 

Coals good for carbonization.. 130 

Processes of carbonization 131 

Comparative products in 

weights 132 

Comparative products in vol- 
umes 133 

Calorific value 134 

Weights 135 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



Object in carbonizing 136 

Natural carbonization 137 

i 5. Anthracite 138 



Its qualities 139 

Its value 140 

Its use 141 



PART FIRST. 



STEEL AND ITS THEORY. 



Definition 142 

Iron 143 

Carbon 144 

Theory of alloys 145 

Carbides of iron 146 

Analyses of steel 147 

Electricity 148 

Solution 149 

Saturation 150 

Definite proportions 151 

Reactions in the blast furnace 152 

Formation of pig metal 153 

Unity in steel 154 

Carbon andiron 155 

Manganese 156 

Carbides of manganese 157 

Action of manganese 158 

Mushet's steel 159 

Silicon 160 

Alloy made by Berzelius 161 

Composition of steel 162 

Clouet's steel 163 

Magnesium 164 

Aluminium 165 

Various alloys 366 

Chemical alloys 167 

Experiment 168 

Beginning of cementation 169 

Steely iron 170 

Cemented iron 171 

Blistered steel 172 

Is this a true steel ? 173 

Fusion.... 174 

Remedies 175 

Cast steel 176 

Steel made in blast furnaces... 177 

Inferences 178 

Manufactures of steel in the 

Alps 179 

Production of steel in the 

Pyrene.es 180 



Unity in the theory 181 

Proportion of carbon 182 

Theory of Reaumur. 
Extracts from Reaumur's 

work 183 

Case hardening 184 

Conversion of iron into steel.. 185 

Cementing substances 186 

Nature of these substances ... 187 

Mode of operation 188 

Trials with mixtures 189 

Explaining how the experi- 
ments succeeded 190 

Trial with lime 191 

Trial with plaster of Paris 192 

Sand 193 

Change of texture 194 

Trial with clay 195 

Trial with leached ashes 196 

Trial with glass 197 

The metal cleansed 198 

Necessity of cementing sub- 
stances 199 

Uselessness of secrets 200 

Trial with fatty matters 201 

Trial with certain salts 202 

Trial with soap 203 

Trial with charcoal 204 

Conclusions 205 

Researches 206 

Alkalies 207 

Borax 208 

Steel not remaining such 209 

Common salt 210 

Spirits of salts 211 

Mineral substances 212 

Salts and charcoal 213 

Best composition (at Reau- 
mur's epoch) 214 

Charcoals 215 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



Composition of steel 216 

Combined and uncombined 

carbon 217 

Other metals alloyed 218 

Pulverizing 219 

Separation into three por- 
tions 220 

1. Estimation of carbon 221 

Search for nitrogen 222 



QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 
2 



Estimation of sulphur and 

phosphorus 223 

3. Estimation of graphitic car- 
bon, silica, lime, etc 224 

Search for chrome and alumina 225 
Search and estimation of man- 
ganese , 226 

Precipitation of the lime 227 

Search for magnesium 228 



PART SECOND. 



METALLURGY OF STEEL. 

Substances for making steel... 229 I Pig metal employed 255 

Classification of the processes 230 Working 256 

Division of this section 231 Products, consumption, labor 257 



I. Natural Steel. 

Furnaces 

Catalan Forge 

Dimensions 

Production of steel or iron.... 

Position of the tuyere 

Projection of the tuyere 

Slope of the tuyere 

Ores employed 

Charging the furnace 

Working 

Drawing the blooms 

Length and waste of the ope- 
ration 

II. Raw Steel. 

Pig metal employed 

Furnaces 

Dimensions 

Staff of workmen 

Mode of operation 

Products and consumption 

Another method 

Westphalian and Silesian pro- 
cesses 

Products and consumption 

Styrian process 



III. Puddled Steel. 
Furnace 



232 
233 
234 
235 
236 
237 
238 
239 
240 
241 
242 

243 



244 
245 
246 
247 
248 
249 
250 

251 

252 
253 



254 



IV. Steel of Cementation. 

Definition 258 

Cementation at the ordinary 

tern perature 259 

Ignorance on this subject 260 

Cementation in general 261 

Furnace 262 

Dimensions 263 

Charge 264 

Operation 265 

Observations on furnaces 266 

V. Cast Steel. 

Object of casting 267 

Crucibles or pots 268 

Construction of pots 269 

Choice of the materials 270 

Mixed clays 271 

Moulds...." 272 

Drying 273 

Annealing 274 

Various shapes of pots 275 

Stands and lids 276 

Labor 277 

Graphite 278 

Its composition 279 

Casting furnaces 280 

Dimensions 281 

Sheffield furnaces 282 

Charging 283 



CONTENTS. 



Xlll 



Fuel 284 

Operation 285 

Making the ingots 286 

Running into large moulds.... 287 

Use of manganese 288 

Remarks on steel 289 

VI. Wootz. 

Definition 290 

Ore employed 291 

Furnace 292 

Analogy with natural steel.... 293 

Fusion 294 

Waste 295 

Analogy with cast steel 296 

Various processes 297 

Shape of the commercial pro- 
duct 298 

VII. New Processes. 
Summing up of the various 

processes 299 

Tendency of the metallurgy of 

steel 300 

All processes derived from one 

principle 301 

Process of Mr. E. Newton .... 302 
Process of Messrs. Crace Cal- 
vert, Fontaine 303 

Process of David Mushet and 

S. Rodgers 304 

Process of Messrs. Martien and 

Brooman 305 

Process of Mr. Robert Mushet 306 
Process of Messrs. Price and 

Nicholson 307 

Process of Mr. Manory 308 

Process of Mr. Sterling 309 

First idea of the Bessemer pro- 
cess due to Mr. Martien 310 

Chenot Process. 

Principle 311 

A rational idea 312 

Mr» Chenot is struck by it .... 313 
Disposition of the apparatus... 314 
Enormous compression 315 

2 



Cementation..*. 316 

New metallurgy of steel 317 

Bessemer Process. 

Theory 318 

First idea due to Mr. Martien 319 

Principle of the operation 320 

Apparatus 321 

Fitting the converter 322 

Mode of operation 323 

Taylor Process. 
Analogy with the Bessemer 

process., 324 

Apparatus 325 

Production regulated at will.. 326 
Continuous production 327 

Uchatius Process. 

Definition 328 

Pig iron employed 329 

Granulating the metal 330 

Theory 331 

Mode of operation 332 

Proportions 333 

Experiments 334 

Products and consumption .... 335 

VIII. Damascus Steel. 

Damascus blades 336 

Price and description of scime- 

tars 337 

Imitations in Europe 338 

How to make the pattern ap- 
pear 339 

Theory of Mr. Henri, of Bou- 

gival 340 

Influence of aluminium 341 

IX. Metallic Tissues. 

Definition 342 

Metallic alloys 343 

Silver steel 344 

Mechanical alloy 345 

Rhodium steel 348 

Platinum steel 346 

Metallic mirrors 347 

Chromium steel 349 



XIV 



CONTENTS. 



PART THIRD. 



WORKING OF STEEL. 



Division of this section. 



350 



I. Refining by Drawing or 

Tilting. 

The object of this operation... 351 

Working 352 

Furnace 353 

Influence of a good workman 354 

II. Welding. 

Temperature 355 

Equilibriation of heat 356 

Respective masses of iron and 

steel 357 

Use of borax 358 

III. Annealing. 
Annealing is not tempering.... 359 

Difference 360 

Degree of temperature 361 

Cooling in water 362 

Cooling in charcoal dust 363 

IV. Hardening. 

Effects from heat 364 

Slow cooling 365 

Rapid cooling 366 

Explanation of the hardening 367 

Definition 368 



Loss of specific gravity 369 

Hardening in tepid water 370 

Theorem on hardening 371 

Limits 372 

Cherry-red heat 373 

Pare water 374 

Degrees of hardening 375 

Temperatures for hardening... 376 

Overheating 377 

Employment of fusible alloys.. 378 

Composition of these alloys... 379 

V. Tempering. 

Harshness of steel 380 

Structure of iron and steel 381 

Change by heat 382 

Tilted steel 383 

Tempering 384 

Effect produced 385 

Changes of color in tempering 386 

They act as guides 387 

Mode of operation and pre- 
cepts 388 

VI. Hammer Hardening. 

Hammering iron 389 

Hammer hardening steel 390 

Should not be done too rapidly 391 

Warped or distorted pieces 392 

Causes of this phenomenon ... 393 



PART FOURTH. 



PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND ITS USES. 



Contents of this section 394 

I. Characteristics of Steel. 

Distinction of acids 395 

Specific gravity 396 

Granular texture 397 

Crystalline texture 398 

Fibrous texture 399 

Hardness 400 



Differences by scratching 401 

Substances for scratching 402 

Sound of steel 403 

Fibre of steel 404 

Welding 405 

Forging 406 

Harshness.... 407 

Hardness to the file 408 

Differences of texture 409 



CONTENTS. 



XV 



How to make the trial 410 

Curious phenomenon 411 

What Diodorus and Plutarch 

relate 412 

Sheffield cutlers 413 

Mr. Weiss, of London 414 

Tensile strength 415 

Wheel tires 416 

Iron tires 417 

Puddled steel tires 418 

Comparative resistance to 

wear 419 

Iron tires 420 

Puddled steel tires 421 

Cast steel tires 422 

Runs performed 423 

Horseshoes 424 

English manufactures 425 

Trade marks 426 

Swedish irons 427 

Russian irons 428 

II. Files. 

Materials for files 429 

Forging 430 

Hand forge 431 

Annealing 432 

Truing the blanks 433 

Grinding 434 

Cutting 435 

Cutting machines 436 

Hardening 437 

Furnace 438 

Muffles 439 

Why muffles are employed 440 

Coating 441 

Heating 442 

Colors 443 

Conditions of success 444 

Number of men employed to 

the furnace 445 

Mode of immersion 446 

Warping 447 

Straightening 448 j 

French files 449 

How to file 450 

Files employed 451 

Color of the file 452 

Trial of files 453 

Rejected files 454 

Some defects in files 455 



Trial of bastard files 456 

Trial of smooth files 457 

III. Steel Wire. 

Drawing wire 458 

Its object 459 

Draw plates 460 

What made of 461 

The conditions they have to 

fulfil 462 

Pointing and drawing the 

wire 463 

Effect of a coating of copper.. 464 

How many annealings 465 

A slow drawing necessary 466 

Oxidation 467 

Annealing furnace 468 

Furnace of Aigle 469 

Furnace of Mr. Fox 470 

Working of this apparatus 471 

Its advantages 472 

Qualities of steel wire 473 

Gauges 474 

Principle of wire drawing 475 

Pinion and grooved wires 476 

Watch springs 477 

Wires for musical instruments 478 

IV. Needles. 

Choice of the wire 479 

Length 480 

Pointing 481 

Separation 482 

Head flattening 483 

Annealing 484 

Making the groove 485 

Stamping the heads 486 

Straightening 487 

Inspection 488 

Hardening 489 

Tempering 490 

Polishing 491 

Scouring 492 

Winnowing and wiping 493 

Loss by the operation 494 

Sorting the needles 495 

Drilling of the eyes 496 

Last polishing and burnish- 
ing 497 

Cemented needles 498 

Gilt needles 499 



XVI 



CONTENTS. 



V. Steel Plate. 

Choice of the metal 500 

Processes of drawing 501 

Steel of cementation 502 

Slabs 503 

Hammers 504 

Steam hammers 505 

Rules for heating 506 

Furnaces 507 

Doubled slabs 508 

Construction and material of 

rolls 509 

Roughing down rolls 510 

Train of rolls 511 

Protection of slabs 512 

Taking the oxide off plates ... 513 

Hardening 514 



Number of revolutions of the 

rolls 515 

Engraving plates 516 

Error on this subject.. 517 

VI. Saws. 

Materials 518 

Slabs 519 

Punching the teeth 520 

Shapes of teeth 521 

Heating 522 

Hardening 523 

Blazing off 524 

Straightening 525 

Planishing 526 

Hammering and polishing 527 



INTRODUCTION. 



HISTORY OF STEEL. 

1. The discovery of steel is lost in antiquity, and 
is mingled with that of iron ; the first indications are 
found in Genesis. In order to write the history of 
the carburized metal, we should give that of iron ; 
but this would carry us too far beyond the limits of 
this small treatise. The Hebrews have confounded 
under the name of ^na (barzel), the two metals, the 
working of which, according to Moses, had been 
taught to men by Tubal-Cain 1 , whose father lived 
3130 years before Christ. Job says that the metal 
was extracted from an arenaceous ore, probably 
similar to that actually employed at Samakof, in 
Eomalia. 2 We find in Deuteronomy that Og, King 
of Bashan, possessed an iron bedstead, which shows 
to what degree of perfection the art of forging had 
arrived. 3 

1 And Zillah, she also bare Tubal-Cain, an instructor of every 
artificer in brass and iron. (Gen. iv. 22.) 

2 Job xxviii. 2. 

3 Deuteronomy iii. 11. 

3 



26 TKEATISE ON STEEL. 

2. It is probable that, like what is now the usage 
in Asia and in Central Africa, the Hebrews had 
nothing which could be properly called a furnace; 
but that they made a hole in the ground, filled it 
pell-mell with ore and charcoal, and promoted the 
combustion with their breath first, and afterwards 
with fans made of large tree leaves. The first indi- 
cations of a regular mode of working are to be found 
in Egypt, where the Jews, during their servitude, 
were obliged to work in the forges of that country. 1 

8. Already, at that time, steel and iron were 
known by the Chinese; their first chiefs had found 
iron mines in the territory of Leang-tcheou. 2 It is 
likely that the knowledge of the metal came from 
the west of Peking, because it is there where the 
Celestial empire began to be populated. 

4. In Larcher's Chronology it is stated that iron 
was known only 1537 years before Christ, over 250 
years before the Trojan war. In the age of Homer, 
the metallurgical working of iron and steel was 
much advanced and varied; the latter metal was 
polished, as we may infer from the epithets ottom, 
shiny, and rtoubs, white, 3 applied by the poet in his 

1 But the Lord hath taken you, and brought you forth out of 
the iron furnace (^naiTD, Courbarzel), even out of Egypt. 
(Deuter. iv. 20.) 

2 Chu-King, cap. Yu-Cong. 

3 II. iv. 485 ; vii. 473 ; xx. 372. 



INTRODUCTION". 27 

poems, in opposition to p&a?, black, which seems to 
indicate ductile iron, as it comes from the hands of 
the blacksmith. It was hardened, because in the 
Odyssey, Homer compares the noise of the inflamed 
branch driven into the eye of Polyphemus to that 
produced by a blacksmith, when dipping into cold 
water a saw or an axe for hardening — an operation 
from which is derived all the strength of iron. 1 

.5. It is a mistake to believe that in the heroic age, 
bronze alone was employed in the manufacture of 
arms and agricultural implements ; from Homer we 
learn that the points of darts were sometimes forged 
out of steel, 2 and this metal was also used to make 
tilling instruments and weapons for shepherds. 3 

6. It is true that the use of bronze had preceded 
that of steel, as shown by Hesiod, 4 and after him, by 
Lucretius; 5 but we must not conclude with Eusta- 
thius and several other commentators, that Homer 
had confounded the two metals under the generic 
name of ^caxoj. 

This error is very likely caused by the Grecian 
poet confounding all metal workers under the same 

1 Odyss. ix. 391. The word <^a.pfxa.ac-uv used by Homer, is also 
employed by Greek dyers to express the action of dipping the 
cloth into the bath. 

2 Odyss. xix. 494. 3 II. xxiii. 832. 
* Epa-a kuI hf*spat t 150 and 151. 5 V. 1286. 



28 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

denomination, that of x^xfvs, x^xtvnv, which means 
the working of metals, whatsoever be their nature; 
and moreover the root is *caxo?, bronze. Suidas and 
Hisychius express the word z^xsvs, by a worker in 
bronze, iron, or gold. 

7. According to Aristotle, in ancient times, bronze 
was manufactured, and vases were cast in the island 
of iEthalia (Elba), celebrated for the richness of its 
iron mines. It is more recently, and when the ores 
for bronze making were exhausted, that iron was 
discovered, and its extraction began. 1 

8. From a memorable passage of that book of 
Aristotle called Concealed Marvels, we learn that 
the Chalybes worked a ferruginous sand, after a 
simple washing, without any admixture: it was diffi- 
cult then for them to obtain anything else but steel. 2 
In some cases, the washing was more perfect, and a 
flux was added, which they called pyrimac? Theo- 
phrastes, while confirming this assertion, says that 
the pyrimac and molar stones used were very fusible, 

1 De mirabil. auscult. expl., by J. Beckmann, cap. xcv. 

2 The Chalybes inhabited the southern coast of Pontus Euxhms, 
where they had become celebrated by their manufactures of 
steel. The Greeks called ^aXuC? the metal they imported from 
that country : from thence the word went to the Romans, after- 
wards to Spain, and finally to Great Britain, where the term 
chalybeate has been kept and applied to various uses of iron 
and steel. 

3 De mir. ausc, cap. xlix. pp. 92, 95. 



INTRODUCTION. 29 

and helped the fusion of iron. 1 It is likely that the 
pyrimac or pyromac stone was the variety of silica 
called Flint 2 (pieire d feu, Fr. ; feuerslein, Ger.), and 
that the molar stone was simply a kind of limestone. 
This is perfectly well explained by Pliny : igne 
cremato lapide ccementa in tectis ligantur. 3 

9. The operation was performed in a low furnace. 
Aristotle, in a passage which commentators explain 
in different ways, seems to say that the operation 
required two fires — probably one was for reducing, 
and the other for reheating. This explanation of the 
Greek text appears to be proper, since it is what 
occurs actually in the forges we have inherited from 
the ancients. Moreover, Pliny says so formally. 4 

10. The fuel used was mostly wood. Pliny in- 
dicates pine-wood as being used in the manufacture 
of iron and steel. It is certain that the ancients had 
cognizance of charcoal, because they employed it in 
several metallurgical processes; but nowhere is it 
said that it was used in the working of steel. 

11. Bituminous coal (lith anthrax) was known and 
employed by blacksmiths 5 in the earliest ages of 

1 TIE pi \l&w f § 19. 

2 In dictionaries the words 7rvpi(A.*Hoq or 7rvpifA.a.nos are translated 
into fire- stone. 

3 Lib. xxxvi. cap. xxvi. * Lib. xxxiv. cap. xiv. 
5 Thtophrastus, cap. xxvii. 

3* 



30 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

Greece and Eome; nevertheless, no indications can 
be found that it was employed largely in the metal- 
lurgy of iron. Such coal was found in Elea, on the 
road to Olympia, and in Liguria, where amber was 
to be obtained also. 1 

12. There is no doubt that pig metal or raw iron 
was known by the ancients. Aristotle shows this 
clearly and precisely. "Iron," says he, "is softened 
during the operation so as to become liquid, but 
soon it hardens again. This is the only way of 
making steel. A pasty scoria swims on top, while 
the separated iron falls to the bottom." 2 Neverthe- 
less, it appears that it never came to the mind of 
metallurgists of those ages to turn to account this 
state of fluidity, and to run the metal into moulds. 
It is possible that the rapidity with which pig metal 
coagulates and hardens has been found to be an 
obstacle to its use. 

Pliny had known also this state of liquefaction. 
"It is surprising," says he, " when the ore is reduced, 
to see the iron become as fluid as water, and be after- 
wards divided sponge like." 3 The word sporigiae % 
which, among German commentators, 4 has received 
numerous interpretations, is here evidently applied 

1 Theophrastus, cap. xxviii. 

2 MsTE6t>po\oy>iy.£)V) cap. vi. 

8 Cornmendatio de arte ferri conficiendi veterum, Haussmarm, 
p. 41 arid seq. 
4 Cap. viii. v. 9. 



INTRODUCTION. 3L 

to the mass full of scoriae, which, most generally, is 
divided in several pieces in order to be brought 
more conveniently under the hammer. 

13. The art of extracting, refining, and working 
iron and steel was diffused from Egypt over all 
parts of Arabia. It was known of old, that the 
mountainous part of Palestine was rich in iron 
mines; thus in Deuteronomy, it was said with some 
appearance of truth to the Israelites, on the eve of 
entering that land, that its stones were iron. 1 

14. The Jews and Egyptians were not alone in 
knowing how to forge iron and steel, inasmuch as 
Og, King of Bashan, had a bedstead made of that 
metal. 2 At Babylon, in place of hydraulic cement, 
the stones of bridges were bound together by means 
of iron bars cemented with melted lead. 3 Instru- 
ments made of steel were multiplied very rapidly: 
they were used for cutting stones 4 and for commit- 
ting murder. 5 Ductile iron was employed for a great 
many uses ; even nails were made out of it ; 6 and 

1 Deuter. viii. 9. 

2 Ibid. iii. 11. 

3 Herod, lib. i. 186. Thus were consolidated on their outer 
surface the walls of Pyrei (Thucydides, lib. i. cap. xcxiii.) : 
they were made of large stones, fitting very closely, cut square, 
and united without cement, lime, or clay. 

4 Deuter. xxvii. 5. 

5 Numbers xxxv. 16. 

6 Judges iv. 21. 



32 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

Sisera, Captain of Jabin's army, had nine hundred 
chariots of iron. 1 

15. At that epoch, locksmiths or blacksmiths 2 
were important personages, whom kings took with 
them on their journeys, as we may see when Jehoia- 
kim, King of Judah, left Jerusalem. 3 

16. We have not now to inquire what were the 
iron ores treated by the ancients ; this important 
question will subsequently receive due attention. 
Besides the arenaceous magnetic ore which, we have 
said, was employed by the Hebrews and Greeks of 
old, 4 it is likely that the other ores used by ancient 
metallurgists were those whose external appearance 
indicated the most plainly the nature of the metal 
within, whose extraction was the least difficult and 
laborious, and whose fusion was easy. 

17. However, in proportion as Roman civilization 

1 Judges iv. 13. 

2 "UDD (Mashagour). This word is translated by Buxtorf 
into faber ferrarius, claustrarius. This interpretation is con- 
formable to the root "UD (shagow), which means to lock, to in- 
close (Gren. ii. 21 ; vii. 16 ; xix. 6 ; Exod. xiv. 3; Jos. vi. 1. 

3 2 Kings xxiv. 13, 15 ; Jerem. xxiv. 1 ; xxix. 2. 

4 The iron and steel of Avelino, near Naples, is made out of 
a similar ore. We find also the same ore worked in Tyrol ; also 
by the savages in Virginia ; in the small furnaces of Heraclea, 
on the shores of the Black Sea, &c. 



INTRODUCTION-. 33 

took the place of Grecian, so was the use of iron 
and steel extended. Before the historical era, and 
up to Herodotus, bronze had been quite exclusively 
the material from which weapons were made. Under 
the Romans iron and steel had been put to more 
uses, and took the place of copper in many cases. 

The two greatest poets of antiquity, Homer and 
Virgil, who delineate so well the different epochs in 
which they lived, state in a striking manner by two 
verses, and with similar expressions, the preponde- 
rance of one metal over the other at different his- 
torical times. Homer, speaking of death, says : 
xd-Kxiov vTtvov, sleep of bronze; 1 Yirgil expresses the 
same idea bjferreus somnus ) sleep of iron. 2 

18. The art of forging iron and steel infers the 
employment of the hammer and the anvil. Thus it 
is likely that these two simple implements were 
known by Tubal-Cain. Goguet asserts they are 
mentioned in Job. 3 The first notice of these tools 
is found in Isaiah/ when he says : " So the carpen- 
ter encouraged the goldsmith, and he that smooth- 

1 II. v. 785. 2 Eneid. x. 745 ; xii. 309. 

3 Cap. xli. 15, 20 (Orig. des Lois, p. 172). This is appa- 
rently a mistake. I have vainly endeavored to find that pas- 
sage in the Hebrew text. Mention is made of the nse of ham- 
mer and spikes in the book of Judges (iv. 21). 

4 Isaiah xli. 7, t?D2 (Pethist). In chap. xliv. 12, the same 
prophet uses the expression r>2pQ (Makebet) for a peculiar ham- 



34 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

eth with the hammer him that smote the anvil, 
saying, it is ready for the sodering; and he fastened 
it with nails, that it should not be moved." 

19. It is probable that bellows were employed 
more recently. The word used in the metallurgy 
of the Hebrews to express the action of blowing, is 
n£3J (nopheh)} Jeremiah has even made a name of 
that word, to indicate a blowing apparatus. 2 The 
Septante have translated by Qvoijffa and the Vulgate 
by sufflatorium. 

Homer is much more explicit in the description 
of these instruments. The bellows ($iW) of Yulcan 
were movable; they revolved around a pivot, 
Oypt^f). The anvil (aixfiov) 3 could be taken off the 
stock 4 at will ; anvils of several sizes were employed. 
The tongs (rfvpaypa) derived their name from their 
use. 5 

20. However, at about the time when Moses was 
leading the Hebrews across the deserts of Arabia, 
the cities of Tyre and Sidon were founded by Egyp- 
tian colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean 

mer, one side of which had a flat face, while the other side was 
pointed. 

1 Isaiah liv. 16 ; Ezekiel xxii. 20, 21. 

2 Jerem. vi. 29. 

3 II. xviii. 476. 

4 'ak{xoQb£ov, made of aiifxoov, anvil, and of rldn/^i, to put on, to 
place, to sit. 

5 From iryp, fire, and aypsva>, I take. 



INTRODUCTION. 35 

Sea. The metal works of Sarepta were constructed 
near the boundary of the country of Azara, and 
afterward acquired a great celebrity. It is amid 
this tribe of Azara, where everybody was a miner, 
according to Father Cobius, 1 that the mines of Car- 
mel were situated. 2 

21. At the same epoch, Inachus was carrying 
from Egypt to Peloponnesus a colony which founded 
the kingdom of Argus. Three hundred years later, 
Cecrops, starting from the same point, founded the 
colony of Athens; while Cadmus, coming from 
Thebes in Egypt, constructed a city bearing the 
same name in Bceotia, and assumed the sovereignty. 

Greece at this time begins to be peopled every- 
where ; and being the result of Egyptian emigration, 
receives the knowledge of the industrial arts, which 
the Egyptians, one of the oldest people in the world, 
had possessed to a great extent. 

22. Cadmus gives the knowledge of bronze to the 
Greeks, 3 and discovers the mines of Mount Pan- 
ga3us. 4 Minos introduces in Crete the art of work- 
ing iron. 5 This metal is soon discovered at Mount 
Ida,? where, according to Grecian tradition, it was 

1 Aser Metallifossor (Prsesid. Joli. Christ. Wickmanshausen, 
liug. or. prof., Wittemb., 1722). 

2 V.ipfj.n'hoq, a<f oZ %a\xo; yevsral (HeSych.). 

3 Hjgin. fab. 274. * Plin. lib. vii. cap. lvii. 
5 Clem. Alex. Strom., lib. i. 6 Marm. Oxen., ep. 11. 



36 treatise on steel. 

disclosed after a conflagration of forests. 1 The Dac- 
tyli, priests of Cybela, take hold of the discovery, and 
introduce the use of iron and steel in Phrygia. 
Prometheus, owing the knowledge of fire to a thun- 
derbolt striking a wood, creates forges in Scythia, 
while Yulcan builds iron furnaces in the island of 
Lemnos. 

23. The use of iron and steel had been known all 
over the East for a long time, and these metals had 
been employed for various purposes, when Lycurgi- 
des proscribed gold and silver, and made the coins 
of iron. 2 

24. The Phenicians, those skilful navigators of 
antiquity, who worked the mines of Eubcea, already 
exhausted at the time of Strabo, were the first to 
pass the Straits of the columns of Hercules (Straits 
of Gibraltar), where they founded the city of Gades, 3 
in order to have a harbor in their travels to the 
Cassiterides. Soon after, they were followed by the 
Chalybes, a tribe of Armenia, celebrated in the 
manufacture of steel, 4 who gave that industry to 

1 Arist., TIspl BavfJtcta-iw aKovs-fxanroy, 1157 E.J Diod. lib. i. 5; 

Strab. lib. i. 3 ; Athen. lib. i. 6. 

2 Several ancient peoples have used iron for the same pur- 
pose : the Clazomenians, according to Aristotle (lib. ii. des Eco- 
nom.) ; the Britons, according to Csesar (Comm., lib. v. 13) ; 
the Byzantians, according to Pollux. 

3 Now Cadiz. 

4 From them the Greeks gave to steel the name of p^aXuS?. 



INTRODUCTION. 37 

Western Spain, while the Greeks were introducing 
it on the eastern shore and in Italy. 

25. Diodorus of Sicily speaks of the island of 
iEthaliaas being rich in iron ores, which the natives 
were working, " breaking them into pieces before 
melting, in order to extract the iron which is part 
of the stone." The stone being once broken, it was 
thrown into a furnace made for the purpose. A 
violent fire melted it, the parts became aggregated, 
and the product was a large metallic sponge. The 
ore thus transformed was sold to merchants, or 
rather exchanged for merchandise, and exported to 
Dicsearchea and other places. There these sponges 
were forged and transformed into various imple- 
ments, which, afterwards, were peddled in the differ- 
ent parts of the known world. 

26. The art of working iron had advanced so far 
as to alloy this metal with bronze for statuary. The 
celebrated artist Alcone had a Hercules made of 
hardened iron or steel. In Kome, wine cups made 
of steel were dedicated to Mars the Avenger, and 
deposited in his temples. 

27. The Eomans do not appear to have modified 
much the Grecian furnaces for iron and steel. 
During their stay in the Peninsula, they applied 
themselves especially to the working of precious 

4 



38 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

minerals, and we must say that they displayed a 
great skill in it. 

28. On the other hand, the Moors were properly 
the manufacturers in Spain ; they gave to the work- 
ing of iron and steel such an importance, as to make 
it possible to foresee the preponderance which these 
metals, the most useful agents of civilization, were 
to attain ten centuries later. They overspread the 
Pyrenees with small hand forges, and made of these 
high mountains covered with forests, a centre of 
fabrication, the workmen of which were so celebrated 
that they supplied blacksmiths to all the adjoining 
countries. 

29. During the first century of the Christian era, 
Calatayud, the ancient Bilbilis, near Moncayo, 1 was 
celebrated for its manufactures of steel. 2 Pliny says 
that the waters of the Salo, which ran around the 
city, were well suited for hardening metals. 3 

1 The ancient city of Bilbilis was situated upon a mountain 
near the actual site of Calatayud. Upon the Monte Bamhola, at 
about one mile and a half from Calatayud, the remains of that 
ancient city are yet to be seen. 

2 The great poet Martial, who was born at Bilbilis, about the 
year 40 A. D., says, in Ep. 55, lib. iv. : — 

Nostra? nomina duriora terra 
Grato non pudeat referre versu : 
Sjbvo Bilbilim optimam metallo, 
Quse vincit Chalybosque, Noricosque. 

3 Lib. xxxiv. cap. xiv. 



INTRODUCTION. 39 

30. While the working of iron and steel was in- 
creasing in the north of Spain and extended to the 
Aquitanian side of the Pyrenees, the Komans were 
introducing the metallurgic art into Germany, where 
it received many improvements. 

31. The ancient metallurgists then worked two 
kinds of iron ore : a pure ore, which required no 
preliminary treatment; and an impure ore, which 
was broken, assorted, washed, and roasted. 1 

The pure ore was smelted in low furnaces, similar 
to a Catalan forge, and produced iron or steel almost 
by chance, when that ore was rich and without vein 
stone. 

The impure or refractory ore, after it had been 
ascertained that it could not be worked in the same 
low furnaces, was smelted in much higher furnaces, 
square, and with an opening on the top into which 
the smelter threw the materials broken into pieces 
of the size of a nut. This is the origin of the stuck 
ofen or high bloomery furnaces, which are the be- 
ginning of our present blast furnaces. 

32. We could scarcely believe that, in this metal- 
lurgy of transition which lasted the first part of the 
middle ages, the limestone and silica fluxes mixed 
pell-mell with charcoal and ore, had not produced a 
raw metal in sufficient quantity to discover acciden- 

1 Agricola, De re metaUica, lib. ix. p. 337 et seq. 



40 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

tally the characteristic property of this new product. 
There is no doubt that we must go back to the twelfth 
century to find out the first idea of a blast furnace, 
and of the use of a raw metal (pig metal), the know- 
ledge of which had been so long time delayed, only 
by the feeble power of the blast apparatus. 

33. Among the Greeks and Romans, the bellows 
were made of leather ;* they were moved by men or 
animals. 2 We find the same in ancient Spain. 3 
Hydraulic wheels only came into use about the six- 
teenth century for pumping in mines, and as movers 
of stamping mills, and other apparatus appertaining 
to blast furnaces. 

34. Agricola, who wrote at Schemnitz, A.D. 1546, 
fails to mention raw metal or blast furnace. We 
must hence infer, without fear of a mistake, that the 
art of casting raw metal into moulds is an invention 
relatively modern, which was unknown in Upper 
Germany. 

35. Although this is not the place to inquire where 
the discovery of cast metal was first made, we cannot 
refrain from saying that all indications point to that 
invention having taken place near the Rhine. 

1 Quam folles taurini habent, quum liquescunt petrse ferrum. 
ubi fit (Plaut., Ed. Sclimied., v. 31, p. 885). 

2 Beitrage zur Gescbiobte der Erfindungen, 1, 3, p. 321 (Beck- 
maim); GeschiclitedesBergbauesder Alten,p 128 (Reytemeyer). 

3 De Hispaniae antiquae re ruetallica, p. 44 (Betlie). 



INTRODUCTION". 41 

36. In 1409, there was in the valley of Massevaux, 
between Kiembach and Oberbruck, a blast furnace 
for smelting iron, which lasted only thirty years. 1 

37. That blast furnaces were extant in France in 
the middle of the fifteenth century is a well-known 
fact, which we will prove elsewhere by authentic 
data. We do not pretend to say that they were in- 
vented in our country, but we have certainly the 
right to take date, and to wait until we are shown 
records older than ours. 2 

. 38. The way the Wootz steel is made in Asia, the 
birthplace of the human race, brings to mind that 
the modern metallurgists, when they invented blast 
furnaces, have but imitated the processes of Persia, Sa- 
lem, and Golconda. There cannot be more analogy 
than there is between these two methods, used in 
times and countries so far apart; one of these 
methods being older than the invasion of Alexander 
the Great, the other born scarcely four centuries 
since. 

In India, from time immemorial, a magnetic ore, 

1 This valley is situated in the Departement du Haut-Rhin. 

2 Englishmen, who pretend to have invented the blast fur- 
nace, have no evidence going as far back to deduce. Mushet 
(Papers on Iron aud Steel, p. 387) goes back only to 1540 A. D. 
to find indications of the manufacture of raw iron in the forest 
of Dean ; O'Reilly (Annales des Arts et Manufactures, t. vi. p. 
226) pretends that blast furnaces were extant in that country 
in 1450, but produces no evidence. 

4* 



42 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

compound of oxide of iron and quartz, is smelted 
with cbarcoal in a furnace (fluss ofen) five feet high. 
This process was perpetuated in the Himalaya, and 
Mungo Park found it again at Kamalia, in Central 

Africa. 

39. The oldest fact known in England in relation 
to the moulding of raw iron, is in the year 1547, 
when a Frenchman named Pierre Baud, estab- 
lished in that country, was smelting cast-iron pieces 
for the English navy. 1 His workman and successor, 
Thomas Johnson, became celebrated for his skill and 
the perfection of his works. 

40. As for the manufacture of steel, the eastern 
countries were far in advance of Europe, when the 
Greeks founded forges in the Peninsula, which after- 
wards were succeeded by the Catalan furnaces in the 
Pyrenees. In all these works, steel was extracted 
directly from the ore. Biscay, for a long time, en- 
joyed a great credit for its steel, and Bilbao had yet, 
in 1548, the privilege of supplying the English 
market with fine tools, such as engraving and point 
tools, punches, scissors, &c. The great market for 
these products had early awakened the cupidity of 
English manufacturers, who tried to counterfeit 
them. Bad faith went so far that, under the name 
of Bilbao iron, tools made of hardened iron without 
any value or quality were sold. In 1548, Parlia- 

1 Worthies of England, by Fuller, 10 62. 



INTRODUCTION". 43 

merit was obliged to intervene and to prohibit this 
reprehensible fraud. 

In the boundaries of Germany, and since the dis- 
covery of raw metal, people thought of refining pig 
metal, leaving in it enough carbon to make a kind 
of natural steel. The centre of this manufacture 
seems to be confined to the Alps. 

41. Germany is also the first country where it 
was proposed to cement iron. Thence, this art came 
to France and was introduced at Newcastle on Tyne 
long before it was known at Sheffield, the present 
centre of that fabrication. 

42. Sheffield cutlery itself does not date very far 
back; the first knives manufactured in England 
were made in 1563, by Thomas Mathews, of Lon- 
don. Previously, that country imported its manu- 
factured steel ware from Flanders and the bordering 
countries. 1 

43. The working of cast-steel, entirely unknown 
in France a few years ago, was introduced into Eng- 
land only in 1770, by Mr. Huntsman, of Attercliffe. 
For a long time it was kept a secret. 

44. Puddling steel is an entirely recent invention; 
in England this discovery is claimed by Mr. Ewald 

1 Oddy's European Commerce. 



44 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

Riepe, who took a patent in 1850 ; but to Austria 
must we give the honor of the invention. 

The first experiments were made in 1835 at 
Frantschach, in Carinthia ; MM. Schlegel and Miiller 
took a patent in 1836 ; thence the process went to 
Cibiswald in 1849, and to Neuberg, Styria, in 1851. 
Inasmuch as the steel obtained by that process did 
not fulfil all the expectations, it was discontinued at 
these places, either by want of a market, or by dis- 
couragement. 

However, in 1846, M. Bischof had made experi- 
ments at the Hartz, in a gas furnace, and MM. 
Weyerhammer had followed in Bavaria and atLim- 
burg on the Lenne. They seem to have been dis- 
couraged by some difficulties. These obstacles were 
overcome only in 1849, in Westphalia, where some 
iron masters, by much perseverance, succeeded in 
producing cast steel, in such quantity as to have it 
become a regular manufacture in 1850. MM. Lehr- 
kind, Falkenroth & Co., of Haspe, were enabled to 
exhibit at London, in 1851, puddled steel of good 
quality and low price. 

Thus Englishmen are not the first in using this 
process; they have been, this time again> skilful 
imitators. 

45. In France, steel works have much progressed. 
In 1833, there were but 69 steel forges producing 
2850 tons of forge steel; in 1852 the production 
went up to 3938 tons. 25 cementation or convert- 



INTRODUCTION. 45 

ing furnaces produced, in 1832, 2964 tons of cemented 
steel; in 1852 that quantity was increased up to 
9808 tons. The manufacture of cast steel, which in 
54 works was not over 324 tons, was 4352 tons in 

1852. 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS, 



We will see that steel is a compound of iron and 
carbon, and is more or less acted upon, mechanically 
and chemically, by various bodies and elements 
which have^ a tendency to modify its properties. 
These reagents are heat, oxygen, sulphur, phos- 
phorus, water, and lime. It will be useful, from 
the beginning, to examine briefly these substances, 
mostly with regard to their action upon the metal 
we are considering. 

I. 
Heat. 

46. The cause of heat is unknown, but the phe- 
nomenon is felt by its effects. 

Its first action upon steel is expansion. To 
understand this peculiar action, we must conceive 
that the molecules of steel are movable, and may be 
separated, leaving between them open spaces or 
pores, which are filled by molecules of heat, not 
perceptible as long as the temperature is low. 
This separation of the metallic molecules, kept apart 



48 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

by the presence of heat, causes the body submitted 
to that phenomenon to become extended in every 
direction, and thus increased in size. This is what 
is called Dilatation or Expansion. 

If heat is given off, the dimensions of steel must, 
of course, diminish ; the pores disappear, the mole- 
cules approach each other, and the solid becomes 
more compact, more dense and heavier in propor- 
tion to its volume. This phenomenon is called 
Contraction. 

The expansion of steel (not hardened) is 5 | T , or 
0.001079 of its volume at 100° centigrade. 

47. The dilatation of steel increased to 1300° 
produces another phenomenon. The molecules, by 
being separated, cause in the whole mass a state of 
softness which in a short time will show another 
phenomenon called Fusion. At a temperature of 
1400° centigrade, the least fusible steel will melt. 
Pig metal will liquefy between 1050° and 1250°, 
and iron at 1600°. 

48. In proportion as heat penetrates the pores of 
steel and expands it, it produces on its surface dif- 
ferent colors. On this point we will not speak 
now, but will return to it again (386). 

49. The materials producing heat are called Fuels. 
Their calorific value is very variable — i. e., they 
produce very different amounts of heat, and, on that 



HEAT. 49 

account, are worth studying. But this is not the 
place for minute accounts, which will be found in 
the Manuel du Maitre de Forges, edition of 1858. It 
will be sufficient to know — and this is important to 
the manufacturer — how much heat each kind of 
fuel will produce. As a standard in the comparison 
of fuels, a calorific unit, called calorie (in French), 
unit of heat, or kilogramme degree, has been 
created. A kilogramme degree is the quantity of 
heat necessary to increase 1° centigrade the tem- 
perature of 1 kilogramme of water. By comparing 
the various kinds of fuel, according to the weight of 
each requisite to produce the same effect, it is easy 
to form a list, where each fuel is represented by a 
certain number of units of heat. But this way of 
reckoning the calorific power is entirely theoretical 
or absolute, and differs widely from the useful effect 
or calorific power obtained in practice. We must 
then look for the latter. 

The total heat of saturated steam at 112°.5 centi- 
grade is equal to 640.8 units of heat, or kilogramme 
degrees. The problem consists in finding out how 
many kilogrammes of water at 0° will be vaporized 
at 112°.5 under a pressure of 1J atmosphere, by 
1 kilogramme of fuel, and to multiply the weight by 
640.8 units of heat. The following numbers have 
been found by this method: — 



50 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 



Furl. 



Vaporized Water. 

Wood .... 3.20 to 4.21 

Charcoal (pine) . . . 6.40 to 7.13 

Peat 2.34 to 4.08 

Carbonized peat . . . 6.43 to 7.24 

Lignite .... 2.03 to 4.02 

,,.. . f Close burning 5.63 to 6.85 

Bituminous j ^ , . „ „„ 

< Dry burning 5.58 to 8.18 

COa ' I Smith's coal 6.84 to 8.07 

f Ordinary . . 6.59 to 7.50 

Coke. | For metallm . gy , 7 >45 t0 7<70 



Not Dried. 


Dried. 


2351 


2939 


4345 


4864 


1986 


3256 


4281 


4550 


1933 


3554 


4149 


4380 


4495 


4548 


4926 


5011 


4582 


4902 


4857 


5156 



IT. 
Oxygen. 

50. Oxygen is that portion of atmospheric air 
which sustains life and combustion, and at the same 
time oxidizes metals. This gaseous substance has 
such an affinity for iron, that if this is in a state of 
minute division and great purity, as with the Chenot 
sponge, it will combine with and oxidize it entirely. 

51. This sponge, of which further notice will be 
taken (314), is an agglomeration of molecules of per 
fectly pure iron, which are kept together by cohe- 
sion, but may be easily reduced into powder. In 
this case, the division of the metallic material is 
extreme ; the smallest spark will fire it — that is to 
say, will begin the combustion. Once begun, and 
air furnishing its oxygen all the while, the combus- 
tion goes on, great heat is produced, and all the'iron 
is burned. 



OXYGEN". 51 

If, then, the weights of the sponge before and 
after combustion have been noted, we find ourselves 
astonished by an increase of weight of about 22 per 
cent. 

52. This is caused by the ox}'gen of the air, which 
has combined with the iron, increasing its weight ; 
100 parts of the burned mass have then the compo- 
sition: — ■ 

Pure iron 77.78 

Oxygen 22.22 



100.00 



53. Oxygen has such an affinity for iron that this 
metal will absorb it continually, without the help of 
heat or fire. Thus, if the oxidized sponge, with its 
22.22 per cent, of oxygen, is left to rest for some 
time, and if its composition is then analyzed, it will 
be found that it has absorbed a fresh supply of 
oxygen, and the result of the analysis will be — 

Pure iron 70 

Oxygen 30 



100 



These two degrees of oxidation are the limits; the 
•first is the oxide minimum, or first degree of oxida- 
tion ; the second is the oxide maximum, or the 
highest degree of oxidation. 



52 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

54. True it is, oxygen has a great affinity for iron, 
but it has also a greater one for carbon, which will 
be spoken of hereafter. It follows that, when iron 
is at the same time in company with carbon and 
oxygen, curious reactions will take place. 

55. Without heat, iron alone will be acted upon 
by oxygen, this being a gaseous substance which 
can move and be carried towards iron, while carbon 
is in a solid state and remains inert. 

By the intervention of heat, oxygen will combine 
with the molecules of carbon, thus producing car- 
bonic acid, while the iron remains pure and unacted 
upon. 

At a high temperature and when iron is about to 
liquefy, there is a double reaction : the carbon com- 
bines all at once with the iron, making a carbide or 
carburet, and with the oxygen, making carbonic acid 
and carbonic oxide; but in this case, it is necessary 
that the quantity of carbon should be in excess of 
what is needed to saturate all the oxygen. 

56. This double reaction takes place during the 
working in the blast furnace. The iron ore, which 
is nothing else than an impure oxide of iron, is in 
the upper part of the furnace, at a height called the 
reduction zone. The carbon, on the contrary, is in 
the lower part, and is the basis of the inflamed fuel. 
At a certain time, when the blast apparatus forces 
air into the furnace, the oxygen becomes separated 



OXYGEN. 53 

and combines with the carbon. Carbonic oxide, 
which is a compound of one atom of oxygen and 
one atom of carbon, is formed, and goes through the 
boshes up to the upper parts of the stack. 

It is unnatural for carbon to combine only with 
one atom of oxygen ; on the contrary, it has a great 
tendency to saturate two atoms of that gas. If this 
does not occur in the boshes, it is for want of suffi- 
cient oxygen to produce carbonic acid (1 atom of car- 
bon, 2 atoms of oxygen); carbon must then remain 
in the state of carbonic oxide all through the space 
filled with coal, until it comes to the reduction zone, 
where the layer of ore is found. There the ore has 
so much softened that the metal is ready to lose its 
oxygen. Carbonic oxide combines with it, becomes 
saturated, escapes in the state of carbonic acid, and 
iron is left pure. 

Such are the reactions in a blast furnace. We 
will soon explain how that iron, when going down- 
wards, will become steel, and afterwards raw metal. 

57. The oxidation of bar steel requires a certain 
temperature above the freezing point. In the polar 
regions, steel does not become oxidized. It seems 
that its pores must be open to allow the introduction 
of oxygen. 



5* 



54 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

III. 

Sulphur. 

58. Sulphur is an enemy of steel. Even? in minute 
quantity, it makes it cold and hot short. Its presence 
is due mostly to the quality of the ore used for natu- 
ral steel or pig metal, or to the fuel in contact with 
the ore. 

59. Iron ores very often are contaminated with 
pyrites or sulphurets of iron, which often cannot be 
eliminated. A long exposure to air and natural 
percolation, a strong and protracted calcination, are 
the only economical and industrial means in the 
power of the ironmaster. In the first case, the sul- 
phuret is transformed into a sulphate which water 
dissolves readily and rain carries away; in the second 
case, the fire volatilizes the sulphur, and expels it in 
the state of sulphurous acid. 

60. As for the mineral fuels, such as pit coal and 
coke, which indeed are often full of sulphur, there is 
no practical corrective; the best is to reject them, 
and to use only the pure ones. The choice is easy, 
and for that it is only necessary to examine the 
color of their ashes. Brown, fallow, or even yellow 
ashes are indicative of a fuel rich in sulphur; a red 
color is the sign of a maximum of that metalloid; 
white ashes show that the fuel is free of this im- 
purity. 



PHOSPHORUS. 55 

The presence of sulphur in pit coal is due only to 
the iron pyrites it holds. Ferruginous coals will be 
then more apt to contain sulphur than those entirely 
carbonaceous. Brown, red, yellow colors are due to, 
the presence of iron, and denote also that of sulphur. 

. 61. Iron bars for cementation, which are piled up 
alongside the walls of warehouses, are exposed to 
the inclemency of the weather, and mostly of rain. 
If they contain a considerable quantity of sulphur, 
a double chemical reaction takes place. Under the 
influence of the dampness of air, iron becomes ox- 
idized, the sulphur also, which, combining together, 
produce green vitriol, thus making an advantageous 
purification. It has been found by experience that 
0.000084 of sulphur, regularly distributed in 1000 
kilogrammes (1 ton) of iron, would produce 734 
grammes (0.000734) of green vitriol. 

This is an important fact from which it can be 
inferred: that a long exposure to the air of iron and 
other materials used for the manufacture of steel, 
such as calcined ore, pig metal, fine metal, puddled 
iron, &c, deprives them of their sulphur, by trans- 
forming it into protosulphate of iron easily washed 
off. 

IY. 

Phosphorus. 

62. The action of phosphorus upon iron and steel 
has some analogy with that of sulphur: by it, iron 



56 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

becomes hot short, and steel cannot weld, the fusi- 
bility being too great. 

However, in certain cases, phosphorus will sus- 
pend the noxious effect of sulphur by neutralizing 
it. Carbon will do the same by decomposing its 
compound. 

63. The great inflammability of phosphorus makes 
it of small account in the manufacture of steel, in 
which it is rarely to be found. In the working of 
the blast furnace, it evaporates, or is transformed 
into an evaporable substance as soon as it comes to 
the upper parts of the boshes. It melts at 35°.8 
centigrade (Fahrenheit 63 t 1 q 4 ). When sulphur and 
phosphorus are found together in materials sub- 
mitted to metallurgic treatment under a certain tem- 
perature, there is a production of a sulphide of 
phosphorus, very inflammable, which will escape, 
producing often an explosion and illumination. 

Y. 
Water. 

64. Water is combined with a certain kind of 
iron ore, called hydrous oxide of iron, in the pro- 
portion of 10 to 15 per cent. Otherwise, water will 
act in the metallurgy of iron and steel, only on 
account of the great quantity of oxygen it contains, 
thus being able to produce the phenomena of oxi- 
dation, deoxidation, and decarburization. 



WATER. 57 

65. Water, indeed, holds nearly 89 per cent, of 
oxygen, which is pre-eminently the gas sustaining 
combustion. This is four times as much as is found 
in atmospheric air. It would seem, at first, that 
water should increase the temperature four times 
quicker than the blast does; but this does not take 
place, because in water, the oxygen is retained by 
the hydrogen with more strength than oxygen by 
nitrogen in the air. 

The two elements of water are kept together by 
the force of affinity, by chemical combination, and 
cannot be separated unless by decomposition, i. e., 
by a chemical reaction where certain conditions 
must be met. In air, the two elements are me- 
chanically mixed, and may be disunited by simple 
separation. 

66. When molecules of heat are mixed with 
molecules of water, or, to speak more plainly, when 
water is heated, it is transformed into steam ; id est, 
it passes to an aeriform state in which the molecules 
of water are kept apart by the molecules of heat. 
Water is not decomposed thus; every molecule has 
kept the same composition it had previously in the 
liquid state, but the intimate union, the affinity of 
the elements is lessened. Hence, at a high tempera- 
ture, steam will promote combustion. 

Atmospheric air, or the blast, is very readily de- 
composed at an ordinary temperature, if it comes in 
contact with a body for which one of its two ele- 



58 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

merits has a great affinity; for instance: in contact 
with iron, it will be transformed into oxide ; in con- 
tact with carbon, it will make carbonic acid. The 
decomposition of air will also take place more readily 
when its molecules are distended by heat. This ex- 
plains the advantages of the hot blast. 

67. We have already seen that water facilitates 
the separation of the sulphur in iron (61); it will 
also separate silicon. 

68. Silicon makes iron cold short. It cannot 
exist in pig iron or steel, in the state of oxide 
(silica), on account of the presence of carbon: it is 
there in the state of silicon, the pure metal. When 
steel or pig metal are on the point of losing their 
carbon, silicon has a tendency to become oxidized ; 
but if it comes in contact with water, instead of 
being transformed into silica, it will be dissolved 
into the liquid, and thus will facilitate the purifica- 
tion of iron. 1 This effect is the more striking when 
water is in the state of steam. If steam is made to 
pass through a furnace, over a metal rich in silica, 
all of this which is in contact with steam will be 
dissolved, and a large portion of it will be carried 
away and deposited upon the sides of the furnace 
where the steam escapes. 

1 This is one opinion. Many persons think that silicon is 
more readily oxidized than carbon. — Note of Translator. 



LIME. 59 

69. The water intimately mixed with the ores or 
fuels will cause their decrepitation ; this effect is 
produced by small explosions which occur when the 
material is submitted to a sudden heat which in- 
stantaneously transforms the molecules of water into 
steam. The sudden expansion produces an effect 
similar to that of a bursting boiler, and the phe- 
nomenon is repeated with each molecule of water. 
Among fuels, anthracite will be noticeable by its 
decrepitation and its sparkling, when particles will 
be flying around, having the form of scales with an 
appearance of cleavage. 

70. "We have said (61) how useful was water in 
expelling sulphur from ores, metallic matters, and 
fuels. We will not repeat it. We will say only 
that, when this liquid is in a hygrometric state in 
ores and fuels, these will generally require a pre- 
liminary calcination. 

VI. 
Lime. 

71. Calcium, whether in the state of oxide or 
carbonate, has a very great influence in the manu- 
facture of pig metal and in the management of a 
blast furnace; it is employed for neutralizing the 
bad effects of silica, and for vitrifying the earthy ma- 
terials which turn into slags or cinders ; besides, it 
will extract sulphur. Lime might be advantageously 



60 TKEATISE ON STEEL. 

used in the manufacture of natural steel and even 
cast-steel, if this was suspected to hold sulphur. 

72. Nevertheless, it is only in the state of calcium, 
that lime is found in steel, and this very seldom. 
Under such circumstances, this metal will harden 
steel, the same as silicon and aluminium do, without 
in the least impairing its quality. 

The substances we have so rapidly examined are 
not those only which are found in contact with 
steel. Carbon, silicon, aluminium, magnesium, and 
manganese have yet more influence on its good or 
bad qualities, and in some cases are quite a compo- 
nent part of the carburet. Consequently, we have 
thought it would be better to speak of them in the 
theory of steel, and we have postponed their de- 
scription from the first section of this work to the 
chapter on the theory of carburets (155). 

YII. 
Iron Ores. 

73. The manufacturer of natural steel or cast-steel 
requires to know the iron ores employed by himself, 
or by the ironmasters who furnish him with pig- 
metal or iron. We will briefly describe them. 

74. Iron ores are oxides of iron mixed with 
foreign earthy matters. 



IRON OEES. 61 

75. Although there are a great number of varieties 
of iron ores, although there are two degrees of oxi- 
dation, it is possible to classify these minerals in a 
small number of species, whether they are con- 
sidered in regard to the quantity of oxygen, or are 
examined in regard to their places of extraction. 
They are : — 

1st. Carbonate of iron (sparry, spathic iron). 

2d. Oligist iron {specular, iron glance, red haema- 
tite). 

3d. Magnetic iron (magnetite). 

4th. Hydrous oxide of iron (limonite, brown hae- 
matite, bog ore). 

Magnetic iron is alone attracted by the magnet ; 
but the three other species will become so after cal- 
cination. 

76. They may be distinguished from each other 
by being streaked with a steel point, or by being 
pulverized. 

The streak is gray with carbonate of iron. 
" " red " oligist iron. 

" " black " magnetic iron. 

" yellow " hydrous oxide of iron. 

77. § 1. A distinct characteristic of the carbonnte 
of iron is that the metal is in the state of protoxide, 
ferrous oxide, or minimum degree of oxidation. Its 
streak is gray, and it becomes magnetic by calciua- 

6 



62 TEEATISE ON STEEL. 

tion. Aside from these characteristics to be found in 
all the varieties, it ought to be divided into two sub- 
species, which are very different from each other in 
place of extraction and composition. 

These two sub-species are lithoid iron and spathic 
iron. 

78. Lithoid iron, often called clay iron stone, black 
band iron ore, is found in the coal measures, where 
it alternates with layers of coal, forming small layers 
of nodules. 1 In its composition silica is found in 
large quantity ; this points to a limestone flux for 
fusing it. 

79. Spathic iron occurs in rocks of transition. 
Magnesia and oxide of manganese enter largely into 
its composition ; hence, irons made out of it are es- 
pecially good for the manufacture of steel. 

80. The analysis of the two sub-species of carbo- 
nate of iron gives on an average — 



Lithoid iron. 


Spathic iron. 


Volatile matters . . .35 


38 


Protoxide of iron .. . 45 


52 


Silica 10 





Magnesia and manganese . 


10 


Other earthy materials, . 10 






100 100 

1 In the nodular state it is generally pure ; the other kinds 
intimately mixed with a coaly clay often contain pyrites and 
phosphoric acid. — Note of Translator. 



IRON ORES. 63 

81. When carbonate of iron is calcined, or after a 
certain exposure to the air, its original color, gray 
or light brown, turns to red, brown-red or brown- 
black. The cause of this is, that the metal, which, 
was oxidized at the minimum, absorbs a larger quan- 
tity of oxygen by the calcination or by exposure to 
the air, and thus passes to the state of peroxide of 
iron, or of oligist iron, with the proper color pf the 
latter. Its streak changes also, and turns red in- 
stead of gray. 

82. § 2. Oligist iron is really an oxide at the 
maximum degree of oxidation, a peroxide of iron, 
ferric oxide. That which has been produced by the 
transformation of which we have just spoken, is only 
one of the numerous varieties of that species, whose 
most distinct characteristic is to give a powder or a 
streak having a bright red color. 

83. Oligist iron presents all sorts of colors, from 
dull red up to the brightness of polished steel; some- 
times it is crystallized, when the surfaces are bright, 
iridescent and with metallic lustre; sometimes it is 
lamellar, the laminas of which are polished, giving it 
the name of specular iron, on account of its property 
of reflecting the rays of light like a mirror. It has 
also a foliaceous structure whose small laminse have 
a steel-gray, bright red, and sometimes sparkling 
color. In some places it is powder-like, granular, 
or compact. 



64 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

84. This species is one of the richest in iron. It 
is often mixed with silicious earth, such as quartz. 
Oligist iron does not contain water, is not magnetic, 
but becomes so after calcination; it does not effer- 
vesce with acids. Analysis gives the following 
numbers, on an average : — 

Peroxide of iron . . . 71 to 93 
Silica and earthy materials . 29 " 7 



100 100 

This indicates a percentage of pure iron equal to 
50 to 65 per cent. 

85. One of the varieties of this rich ore is called 
red haematite; as indicated by the name, it is blood- 
red. Its texture is fibrous, radiated, often similar 
to that of threads of raw silk, radiating from the 
centre of prominences towards the surface. The 
texture is sometimes so compact, that burnishing 
tools are made out of it for polishing gold or gilt 
objects. 

86. This variety, after exposure to air and rain, 
becomes hydrated. Its brown color, after a long 
time, turns to a more or less bright red, loses its 
silky lustre, leaves its mark upon fingers, and is 
transformed into sanguine or red chalk, from which 
the red pencils of carpenters are manufactured. 

87. Eed haematite is most generally superior to 



IRON ORES. 65 

all other varieties of oligist iron for its percentage 
of iron. It contains, on an average, from 80 to 95 
per cent, of peroxide of iron, which corresponds to 
56 to 66 per cent, of metallic iron. It has also a 
great tendency to unite with manganese. 

88. The great amount of metal and the small 
quantity of earthy materials in oligist iron, do not 
make it very convenient for working in blast fur- 
naces, where it would produce but a white metal. 
It is a first rate ore for the manufacture of steel in 
low furnaces, such as a Catalan forge. This variety 
of haematite is sought mostly for that manufacture, 
very likely on account of the large quantity of man- 
ganese with which it is associated. 

89. § 3. Magnetic iron or oxidulated iron is a 
compound oxide made of the two preceding oxides; 
it is sometimes so pure, that Brard brought from 
Sweden a sample having the following composition 
by analysis: — 

(Ferrous oxide) protoxide of iron . . 69 
(Ferric oxide) peroxide of iron . . 31 



100 
which indicates 72.44 per cent, of metallic iron. 

90. It is from this rich ore that Sweden extracts 
those celebrated irons which are all exported to 
England for the excellent steels of Sheffield. It is 

6* 



6t) TREATISE ON STEEL. 

probable that the oxide of manganese found in the 
ore helps to make these irons so advantageous for 
that manufacture ; even magnesia, which is generally 
found in these ores, might have a similar effect. An 
analysis of Swedish pig metal, made by Berzelius, 
corroborates this assertion : — 



91. 



Iron 


. 90.80 


Silicon . 


. 0.50 


Magnesium 


. 0.20 


Manganese 


. 4.57 


Carbon . 


. 3.93 



100.00 

92. § 4. Hydrous oxide of iron is very rarely 
employed in some forges to produce pig metal or 
iron for steel making. However, there is in Styria 
an ore which contains as high as 16 per cent, of 
water; it is true that, at the same time, it is remark- 
able for its percentage of manganese and magnesia. 

93. In the Pyrenees, there is worked for steel a 
hydrated oxide called brown haematite, with a sta- 
lactitic structure. With it occurs a blue-black oxide 
of manganese, which sometimes is as compact as the 
oxide of iron itself, sometimes like a velvet-black 
efflorescence on the outer surface, or in the cavities. 



94. Hydrous oxide of iron, outside of the varieties 



FUELS. 67 

we have just named, and of one or two more which 
are sought for the manufacture of steel, offers a num- 
ber of varieties suitable only to produce pig metal 
in blast furnaces. In passing, we will cite the brown 
oxide with a large metallic percentage, and showing 
sometimes metallic iron by filing; the reticulated 
spongy, foliaceous, hydrous oxides, which often con- 
tain phosphoric acid; the botryoidal brown haematite, 
having much analogy with red haematite, except the 
color; the red hydroted oxide, with an earthy ap- 
pearance and seldom compact ; the brown ochre, 
pisolithic iron, granular iron, bog iron ore, &c. &c. 

VIII. 
Fuels. 

95. Generally, the name of fuel is given to sub- 
stances which, being combined with the oxygen of 
the air, produce the phenomena of combustion. In 
the arts, the fuels are the substances employed to 
produce heat. 

96. The decomposition of their elements, their 
chemical and mechanical reactions, and generally, all 
their alterations or transformations taking place 
only at a higher or lesser temperature, all these 
causes give to fuels a great importance in metallurgy. 
Consequently they should be carefully studied by 
the ironmaster and the steel manufacturer. Their 
choice has a great influence in the quality and cost 



68 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

of the products; and their calorific value, nearly 
always, will determine their more or less advanta- 
geous employment. 

97. In fuels, the most abundant element and the 
one which plays the principal part, is carbon. It 
has a great affinity for iron, and, as we shall see ere 
long, is the basis of steel (142). It has the double 
effect of increasing the temperature of the furnaces, 
and of acting as a reagent in the treatment of iron 
and steel. 

98. Among the vegetable fuels employed in the 
manufacture of steel, the principal are wood and 
charcoal. 

Pit coal, coke, and anthracite are the mineral fuels. 

99. Three constituent principles are found in 
every kind of fuel, no matter what class they belong 
to:— 

1st. Carbon, which is the basis and principal ele- 
ment of heat. The calorific power of this element, 
when pure, is 7800 units of heat or kilogramme 
degrees. 

2d. Hydrogen, the basis of water, and found in 
notable quantity in wood, even when dry. Its 
calorific power is equal to 22,115 units of heat. 

3d. Earthy materials or principles of ashes. They 
are silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, oxides of iron 



FUELS. 69 

and manganese, to which we must add soda and 
potassa in vegetable fuels. 

We do not notice here a certain quantity of 
oxygen, in small proportion, which acts outside of 
the combustion proper, without helping it. 

100. Carbon and hydrogen are then the two ele- 
ments proper for combustion. 

Carbon, the solid element, is the true principle of 
heat ; hydrogen, the gaseous element, is the principle 
of inflammability. These two elements are in an 
inverse ratio to each other : the more a fuel is rich 
in carbon, the less it contains of hydrogen ; the more 
continuous is its heat, the less inflammable it is. 
Wood is very inflammable : it holds six per cent. 
of hydrogen, but has little heating power ; it con- 
tains but 50 per cent, of carbon, while anthracite 
has 91 per cent. The latter has the greatest heating 
power of all natural fuels; it holds but 3 per cent, 
of hydrogen, hence it is the least inflammable. 

101. The ashes have a peculiar action in metal- 
lurgy: if they proceed from mineral fuels and come 
in contact with pig metal or steel during their fusion, 
they impart to these two metals the metallic prin- 
ciples of which themselves are the oxides, i. e., sili- 
con, aluminium, calcium, &c. During the refining 
of pig metal, these metals are oxidized again ; silica, 
lime, and alumina unite with iron and make it cold 
short. Then, they are noxious. 



70 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

102. If the ashes proceed from vegetable fuels, 
such as wood and charcoal, the alkalies they contain 
will vitrify the earthy principles. Silicates (slags, 
cinders, scoriae) are formed thus, which can be ex- 
tracted mechanically, leaving the iron very nearly 
pure. This explains the good quality of charcoal 
irons, and why steel is preferably worked with that 
fuel. 

Having admitted these principles, let us now de- 
scribe the various fuels. 

103. § 1. Wood is the most natural of all fuels; 
it is very likely the origin of all the others. Bitu- 
minous plants have produced pit coal ; the trunks 
and the branches of trees gave rise to lignite; the 
leaves are the origin of peat. Trunks and more or 
less carbonized impressions of plants will be found 
down in the deepest coal measures. 

104. The combustible part of wood is called lig- 
nine, or woody fibre. Lignine, whether from the 
trunk or the branches, and no matter from what 
species it comes, contains, after being perfectly dried, 
nearly 50 per cent, of carbon and 6 per cent, of 
hydrogen. This is the theoretical percentage ; but 
wood holds a great deal of water. When freshly 
cut, the quantity may vary between 0.2 and 0.5. 
After long exposure to the air, part of the water 
will evaporate, but a certain quantity will remain 
always, unless expelled by drying at a high tempera- 



FUELS. 



71 



ture. The wood employed in metallurgy always 
contains from 20 to 25 per cent, of water. 

105. The calorific power of dried wood is 3600 
units of heat ; that of common wood, holding 20 to 
25 per cent, of water, is 2750 units of heat, on an 
average. 



106. The woods employed in the arts are divided 
into two classes : hard woods and soft woods. Oak, 
beech, elm, &c, belong to the class of hard woods, 
contain in the same volume a greater number of fibres, 
and have a closer texture. Pine, fir, linden, poplar, 
&c, belong to the class of soft woods. 

This division concurs sufficiently with the calorific 
value of these different species : — 

107. A cord of wood (4 steres or 4 cubic metres), 
one year cut, produces the following amount of 
heat : — 







Units of heat 


Eard woods - 


f Oak 
Ash 
Beech 


6,846,000 
5,974,000 
5,603,000 




'-Elm 


4,487,000 


r Birch . • 

rv i Chestnut 
Soft woods < _. 

i Pine 


4,102,000 
. 4,035,000 
. 4,263,000 


- 


^ Poplar . 


3,069,000 



72 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

By burning the wood according to its density, we 
ought to come to the same results obtained and 
claimed by MM. Clement and Desormes, i. e., that 
with equal weights, all kinds of woods have the 
same calorific value. 

108. § 2. Charcoal is the product of the com- 
bustion of wood in places or vessels more or less 
closed, where the access of air is more or less 
avoided. 

109. The object of this carbonization is to concen- 
trate into a smaller volume the quantity of carbon 
disseminated in the woody fibre of the wood. 
Although beginning to be formed early, the quan- 
tity of lignine is small in young plants ; with age 
the quantity increases ; and in the various species 
of wood, when 20 to 25 years old, the proportion 
of lignine or woody fibre is from 90 to 95 per cent. 

110. This is the limit of its increase; the tree 
may continue to grow in size, but the quantity of 
lignine remains in exact proportion to its weight, 
if not its volume. The limit of perfection is be- 
tween 20 and 25 years : during that period of time, 
carbonization will be most advantageous. A lig- 
nine, over 25 years old, will not be more economical 
for charring ; but when less than 20 years old, the 
woody fibre will produce a lesser quantity of char- 
coal. 



FUELS. 73 

111. Felling wood for charcoal is done during the 
spring, before the sap has begun to move. A few 
months later, this might injure the growth of the 
new shoots which issue from the stump. Wood, 
when felled during the fall, will not keep well, and 
is liable to be filled with holes. The wood, cut in the 
spring, can be carbonized before the summer is over. 

112. The carbonization is done in heaps, or 
metiers, or in furnaces. 

113. The meiler is built upon a dry and well 
compressed area. The logs of wood are so arranged 
around a central stake as to make a half sphere, all 
around which are left openings to regulate the fire. 
The meiler is covered with earth, charcoal dust,, and 
turf sods, in order to prevent the action of the wind, 
and the fire is so regulated as to give the wood the 
time necessary to lose its water, gases, and be 
charred without the contact of the air. 

A meiler is in itself a true furnace; but, as it is 
not entirely air-tight, much more lignine, and, of 
course, carbon are lost in the operation, than in a 
regular furnace. 

114. In heaps, 100 parts of wood rarely produce 
over 17 to 18 per cent, of charcoal, while in air-tight 
furnaces, the product runs up to 25 per cent. 

However, the yield should be 35 to 36 per cent. 
What is the cause of such a loss ? 
7 



74 TEEATISE ON STEEL. 

115. By a careful examination of what is going 
on during the carbonization in heaps, we see four 
distinct periods or stages during the charring 
process : — 

1st. The mass becomes heated, dampness is ex- 
pelled, and much steam escapes. 

2d. Inflammation appears; the wood is very dry, 
contracts, becomes very dense, and is transformed 
into red charcoal. 

3d. Combustion is beginning; the meiler sinks 
down; scarcely any steam is to be seen, and the red 
charcoal has turned black. The operation is com- 
plete. 

4th. If the combustion is 'allowed to proceed, all 
the black charcoal will be burned out, and soon, 
nothing but ashes will be left. 

Summing up, we have — 

1st Period. The sweating; dampness is expelled; 
it is the dry stage, and nothing is consumed. 

2d Period. The volatile matters escape. This is 
the Ked charcoal stage. There is 36 per cent, of it 
in the meiler. 

3d Period. Half of the red charcoal is burned. 
This is the Black charcoal stage. But 18 per cent, 
is left. 

116. It is evident that, out of these three periods, 
the most advantageous is that where red charcoal is 
produced, when the weight of the product is double 
that in the third period. 



FUELS. 



75 



The same might be said in regard to the carboni- 
zation in air-tight vessels, where about one-third of 
the fuel is lost. 

117. It has been ascertained by experience that a 
slow carbonization will give one-third more product 
than a rapid one. For instance, with ordinary mei- 
lers, oak wood gives only 17 per cent, of charcoal 
by a rapid operation, while the product goes up to 
25 per cent, when the operation is somewhat slow. 



118. As for the calorific value of fuels, we give a 
table of the quantity of heat produced by 1 hecto- 
litre of the following fuels: — 

Units of heat. 

292,000 
255,000 
219,000 
176,000 
167,000 
153,000 
146,000 
176,000 
160,000 
109,000 

The absolute calorific power for 1 kilogramme of 
these charcoals would be 6.095 units of heat. 



Walnut charcoal 


Oak 


t< 


Ash 


u 


Beech 


u 


Elm 


u 


Birch 


u 


Chestnut 


u 


Yoke-elm 


u 


Pine 


u 


Poplar 


a 



76 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 



119. An analysis of charcoal has given — 
Carbon .... 79 
Potassa .... a trace. 

Volatile substances . . 14 
Ashes . . . . ' 7 



100 



120. The specific gravity of charcoal varies with 



the kinds of woods. It is — 

With Walnut charcoal 

Maple " 

Oak . " . 

Pine " . 



0.166 
0.114 
0.106 
0.075 



The weight in kilogrammes of a cubic metre of 
charcoal varies with the nature of the soil of the 
countries where the wood has grown. We find — 

Cher. Vosges. Pyrenees. 





Kilo. 


Kilo. 


Kilo. 


Oak and Beech charcoal 


. 245 


228 


230 


Birch " 


. 225 


228 


230 


Pine " 


. 205 


228 


170 


Fir " 


. 205 


135 


170 


Chestnut " 


. 205 


135 


140 


121. The quantity of alkalies 


contained 


in cl 


coals may be rated at — 








Oak charcoal . 


, 


0.80 per cent. 


Beech " 


, , 


0.50 " 




Elm " 


, . 


2.00 " 




Aspen " 


. 


0.60 " 




Fir " 


m 


0.20 " 





FUELS. 77 

122. § 3. Pit coal, or coal, is the most important 
of mineral fuels, on account of the enormous quan- 
tities found all over the globe, and on account of its 
inflammability and its heating power. Profusely 
scattered at all depths of the crust of the earth, coal 
will outlive our forests, and will furnish to the 
wants of society a fuel which our woods will soon 
be unable to give. 

123. In regard to its industrial uses, pit coal is 
divided into three distinct classes — caking or bitu- 
minous coal, cherry or semi-bituminous coal, splint 
or close-burning coal. 

Caking or bituminous coal (Houille grasse, Fr.) 
contains bitumen, and swells when heated. It gives 
a spongy residuum called coke, which approaches 
nearly to impure carbon. 

Cherry or semi-bituminous coal (Houille maigre, 
Fr.) contains little bitumen, and does not swell when 
heated. It gives a long flame, and, on that account, 
is sometimes called flaming coal. 

Splint or close-burning coal (Houille seche, Fr.) 
does not hold bitumen, does not swell and cake, and 
produces little flame. 

124. It is probable that the early deposits of 
these fuels were only of the bituminous kind, but 
that the eruption of igneous rocks has caused a sort 
of distillation, depriving the coal of part or all of its 
bitumen, and producing thus the cherry and splint 

7* 



78 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

coals. What corroborates this assertion is, that 
splint coals always occur in the vicinity of meta- 
morphic rocks. 

125. From what has been said about the elements 
of combustion (99), we may infer that bituminous 
coal is more inflammable than cherry or splint 
coals, and that the latter contain more carbon. This 
is shown by the following analyses : — 

Coals. 





Bituminous. 


Cherry. 


Splint. 


Carbon 


. 76.25 


84.10 


91.30 


Hydrogen . 


8.10 


4.45 


1.10 


Volatile matters 


. 10.83 


5.60 


1.50 


Ashes 


4.82 


5.85 


6.10 



100.00 100.00 100.00 

126. The calorific power of these three kinds of 
coal is expressed by the following numbers: — 

Units of heat. 

Bituminous coal .... 7800 
Cherry " . . 7200 

Splint " . 6600 

127. In regard to the weight of coal, its specific 
gravity is 1.089 ; therefore the cubic metre weighs 
1.089 kilogrammes in the coal bed; but, after it has 
been extracted and broken, the same measure will 
weigh only 800 to 880 kilogrammes, on account of 
the free spaces. 

One hectolitre of coal will weigh, practically — 



FUELS. 



79 







Kilogrammes 


Creuzot coal 


. . 


. 79 to 80 


Decize " 


. . 


. 82 to 83 


Saint Etienne 


coal 


. 83 to 84 


La Taupe 


u 


. 85 to 86 


Anzin 


(t 


. 85 to 86 


Combelle 


u 


. 86 to 87 


La Barthe 


u 


. 88 to 89 



128. Most generally, coal will contain iron pyrites, 
which it is important to remove. The presence of 
pyrites is ascertained in the ashes by their more or 
less dark color (60). Sulphur would greatly impair 
the quality of iron and steel. Coal also holds a 
certain quantity of water, which it is good to notice 
in practice. 

129. § 4. Coke is the product of the carbonization 
of pit coal. 

130. All kinds of coal are not adapted to coke- 
making. To produce coke, some bitumen is neces- 
sary, in order to cake the molecules of carbon with 
the help of heat. With a higher temperature, the 
volatile parts of the bitumen disappear. Neverthe- 
less, it is possible to make coke with any kind of 
coal, 2 provided some bitumen is added to them in 
the shape of pitch, or of very bituminous coal-dust. 



1 These numbers will apply nearly to the number of pounds 
in a bushel of coal. — Trans. 

2 Even with anthracite. — Trans. 



80 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

131. The carbonization of coal is similar to that 
of wood; it can be made in heaps or in ovens. 
Sometimes it is effected between walls built around 
the heap of fine coal, forming thus a kind of half 
oven. 

132. In heaps, 100 kilogrammes of coal produce 
from 40 to 45 per cent, of good coke ; between walls 
the yield is from 45 to 50 per cent.; and in ovens 
from 60 to 65. But the coke made in heaps is more 
compact, brighter, and more sonorous than that 
which has been made between walls or in ovens. 1 

133. The volume of coke, compared with that of 
the coal from which it is derived, is 30 per cent, 
greater with bituminous coal. With cherry coal, 
the volume of coke produced is smaller than that of 
the coal itself; but in large operations, where va- 
rious kinds of coal are mixed, it is calculated that 
the two volumes of coal and coke are equal. 

134. The theoretical calorific value of coke is less 
than that of coal. The latter will give 7.500 units 

1 As much as 70 to 75 per cent, of coke, as good as that 
obtained in heaps, has been produced in ovens. Ovens will 
give, with the same quality and quantity of coal, a yield of 70 
to 80 per cent, superior to that obtained in heaps. Certain 
appearances of coke are eagerly sought for in some places, while 
in others tbey are a cause of discredit. The best appearance of 
coke, cceteris paribus, is its behavior during metallurgic opera- 
tions. — Trans. 



FUELS. 81 

of heat on an average, while the former will produce 
but 6000 units of heat. This is due to the presence 
of hydrogen in the raw fuel. One hectolitre of coke 
represents 230,000 units of heat; one hectolitre of 
coal 630,000. It would appear that coke and char- 
coal would give very similar results, one hectolitre of 
oak charcoal producing 255,000 units of heat. How- 
ever, the value of coke is superior to that of char- 
coal from soft woods. 

135. The coke from gas works is too brittle and 
too light to be used in metallurgy ; it weighs only 
300 to 350 kilogrammes the cubic metre, while the 
manufactured coke weighs from 400 to 450 kilo- 
grammes. 

136. The object in carbonizing coal is to expel 
the bitumen and the sulphur ; T but, as by this opera- 
tion coal loses half the heat which would be pro- 
duced by its complete combustion, it is difficult to 
understand such a carbonization in an economical 
way, unless all the volatilized products are collected, 
instead of allowing them to be lost in the air, as is 
generally done. 

137. Nature, by removing the bitumen from the 
coal measures nearest to the eruptive rocks, has pro- 

1 One of the principal objects is also to produce a fuel able to 
resist heavy pressures, which will not crack or split, and will 
allow a free circulation of the reducing and heating gases. 
— Trims. 



82 TREATISE ON" STEEL. 

duced a natural coke in the shape of splint or close 
burning coal. This latter differs from the coke only 
by its specific gravity caused by the enormous pres- 
sure of the rocks above it. 

138. § 5. Anthracite is a peculiar fuel, very rich 
in carbon and without bitumen. There is too much 
tendency, among scientific persons, to confound splint 
coal with anthracite. It occurs in the oldest rocks, 
it presents no impressions of organic matters, and 
has for its principal characteristic — decrepitation 
when heated. 1 

139. It is a powerful fuel, difficult to kindle, 
burning with little flame, and thus similar to splint 
coal and coke. Workmen give it the name of in- 
combustible coal, on account of its resistance to 
inflammation. 

140. Anthracite contains no less than 90 per cent, 
of carbon ; it gives an intense and constant heat 
which can be increased by a powerful blast. It can 
be burned simply with a good draft, and is adapted 
to domestic uses, as may be seen in the dwellings of 
Grenoble. 2 

1 This is to a high degree a characteristic of the anthracite of 
Europe. It chokes a fire by the multitude of splints it produces 
when heated. 

2 In that part of France, anthracite is made to burn with a 
long flame under boilers, by closing the ash-pit almost entirely 






FUELS. 83 

141. This fuel is very advantageously used for 
metallurgy in Wales and in Pennsylvania. In 
France, where enormous deposits occur, it is over- 
looked and scarcely employed for burning plaster of 
Paris and lime. 

This is the end of the preliminary observations we 
have thought useful to the manufacturer of steel. 
Those persons wishing to make a more thorough 
study of them should read the Manuel du Maitre de 
Forges, published this year (1858), by my father, 
and which is complete on that subject. 

(except when cleaning the grate) with, an iron door, and intro- 
ducing in that ash-pit a small steam jet. The steam passing 
through the incandescent fuel, is decomposed into its two ele- 
ments, hydrogen and oxygen. The first burns readily, the 
second and the air of the draft make carbonic oxide and carbonic 
acid. A long flame is thus produced. This might be advanta- 
geous in some cases, but the economy is doubtful. — Trans. 



PART FIRST. 

STEEL AND ITS THEORY. 



Steel. 

142. Steel is an alloy of the pure metal, iron, 
with the metalloid carbon. Therefore, iron and 
carbon united, whether as alloy, or by chemical 
combination, produce steel. 

Before describing this alloy and its properties, it 
is well to consider separately the two elements 
which, when united, make steel. This study is the 
more useful, inasmuch as their behaviors are very 
different. 

143. Iron is an elementary body, very useful in 
the arts on account of its ductility, malleability, and 
tenacity. Without being entirely infusible, it will 
resist a violent fire, and will soften only at a very 
high temperature. It may then be welded with it- 
self, this being a characteristic which makes it so 
superior to other metals. Its specific gravity, 7.788, 
is greater than that of zinc and tin, but less than 

8 



86 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

that of the other industrial metals. The hardness 
of iron is small, when that metal is chemically pure, 
but will increase when it is associated with foreign 
bodies, such as carbon, silicon, and manganese, which 
themselves are elementary and distinct bodies. 

144. The purest kind of carbon is the diamond, 
which has neither ductility, malleability, nor tena- 
city. It is exceedingly brittle, and its hardness is 
unequalled. It is infusible, not sonorous, and its 
properties, in a word, are entirely different from 
those of iron. Its specific gravity (3.50) is about 
half that of iron. Pure carbon is of exceedingly 
rare occurrence in nature, and on that account is 
much valued as a gem ; on the contrary, it is very 
abundant in the impure state, as in wood, charcoal, 
mineral coal, coke, &c, where it is the basis of fuels, 
and in soot, leather, oils, &c. 

145. The union of iron and carbon follows the 
general theory of alloys ; we may compare it to the 
union of tallow with beeswax, when one of these 
substances is poured into the other which has been 
previously melted. But what is the nature of the 
alloy? Is it a chemical combination in definite 
proportions or a simple mixture? Is it a solution 
of one in the other? 

In steel we find no characteristics of a chemical 
combination by atomic weights. 



STEEL. 



87 



146. 1. There are only five carburets or carbides of 
iron which- are chemically combined, in definite pro- 
portions and corresponding in simplicity of formulae, 
with the natural combinations. They are the bicar- 
buret of iron, the sesquicarburet, the protocarburet, 
the bi-ferriccarburet, and the quadri-ferriccarburet. 
Their composition is: — 





Fe.C* 


Fe 2 .C 3 


Fe.C 


Fe 2 .C 


Fe 4 .C 


Iron .... 
Carbon . . . 


69.58 
30.42 


75.31 
24.69 


82.07 
17.93 


90.15 
9.85 


94.82 
5.18 




100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 



147. The small number of analyses of cast steel, 
which are recorded, give the following results : — 



Cast- Steel. 



Iron .... 
Carbon . . . 
Silicon . . . 


99.442 
0.333 
0.225 


99.435 
0.330 
0.235 


99.445 
0.340 
0.215 


99.360 
0.325 
0.315 


99.360 
0.335 
0.305 




100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 


Cemented Steel. 


Iron .... 
Carbon . . . 
Silicon . . . 


99.325 
0.450 
0.225 


99.375 
0.500 
0.125 


98.959 
0.789 
0.252 


98.830 
0.866 
0.304 


98.835 

0.885 
0.280 




100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 



88 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

In these numbers, nothing indicates a chemical 
proportion, or an analogy with the formulae of car- 
burets of iron. 

148. 2. Another characteristic of chemical com- 
binations is, that they take place between bodies of 
opposite electricities, so that, at the moment of com- 
bination, the two kinds of electricity neutralize each 
other and disengage heat. When the union of carbon 
with iron takes place, not only is the temperature 
not increased, but, on the contrary, it is lowered. 

149. In the alloy of these two elements, there is 
a great analogy with what is termed solution by 
chemists. 

1. During solution, one of the bodies first becomes 
liquid ; it is the solvent, and afterwards receives the 
other, which dissolves in it. When the union takes 
place, the temperature is lowered. This is seen in the 
formation of steel, where iron acts as the solvent 
into which carbon liquefies, absorbing a certain 
amount of latent heat. 

150. 2. But carbon cannot be introduced into the 
mass of iron in an indefinite proportion. A certain 
quantity may be admitted by degrees, and this limit 
once attained, there cannot longer exist an intimate 
union. An excess will be admitted only in a state 
of mixture. This is what is called saturation. This 
phenomenon will appear in any solution, and is an 



STEEL. «y 

acknowledged fact for every alloy. This is well 
demonstrated by what happens during the solution 
of sugar in water ; the liquid may receive successive 
quantities of sugar without its clearness being im- 
paired ; but if a great deal be added, the transpar- 
ency of the solvent will be lessened, and the excess 
of sugar, being insoluble in the already saturated 
water, will remain suspended in the liquid during a 
while, and afterwards, when the mixture has rested, 
will be precipitated at the bottom of the vase by 
reason of its specific gravity. 

151. The same phenomenon will take place in the 
formation of steel. The iron is melted first, dissolves 
the carbon, and becomes saturated up to a certain 
definite proportion. The carbon in excess, which is 
added to it afterwards, modifies the texture of the 
steel, and produces a new substance called raw metal 
or pig-iron. Steel is produced at a middle tempe- 
rature, as will be seen hereafter ; for raw metal, a 
higher temperature is required. 

152. Thus, in the blast furnace, when the carbonic 
oxide (oxide of carbon) has deoxidized the iron ore 
and set free the pure metal, this metal, which falls to 
the lower part of the boshes through fuel at a high 
temperature, becomes first a saturated steel. It is 
only below the tuyeres that the molten metal ab- 
sorbs a new and indefinite quantity of carbon and 
becomes raw metal (pig iron). 



90 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

153. Steel thus produced has a constant compo- 
sition as regards its constituent principles, iron 
and carbon. On the contrary, raw metal produced 
by an excess of carbon has a very variable com- 
position. More or less fusibility in the ore, a good 
proportion of fluxes, more or less blast, the manage- 
ment of the furuace, &c, all will cause different 
qualities of pig-iron, from white crystallized metal 
up to the darkest gray pig-iron. 

We have said that, in the blast furnace, steel, 
which is the first carburet obtained, has always a 
constant yield of carbon. This cannot be doubted, 1 
because in the saturation of pure reduced iron the 
affinities react alone, and without any human hand to 
disturb the chemical apparatus ; but this is different 
when the proportions of carbon and iron are left to 
the care of the workman. 

154. If nails and charcoal are put into a crucible, 
and if they are strongly and sufficiently heated, steel 
•will be produced ; but that steel will be more or less 
hard or soft, according to the relative proportion of 
its elements. Will it be inferred that there are many 
kinds of steel? This /would be wrong. The follow- 
ing, we think, will demonstrate sufficiently that al- 
terations in the properties of pure steel are due to 
an excess of iron or of carbon outside of the definite 

1 It would be better to say : this is probable, until there are 
proofs at hand,; but this is rather difficult to ascertain with 
certainty. — Trans. 






STEEL. 91 

proportions. In the first case, there is a beginning 
of ductility; in the second case, there is a beginning 
of brittleness. Sometimes the whole mass will be 
transformed into raw metal. 

155. Carbon, the basis of industrial fuels, when 
alloyed with iron, renders steel fusible at a tempera- 
ture not very elevated. How can a substance infusi- 
ble itself, give to iron a property it does not possess ? 
This has no more been explained than the vitrifica- 
tion of silica by alumina and lime. On the other 
hand the iron, which is essentially ductile, cedes part 
of its ductility to the carbon, and the alloy, in defi- 
nite proportions, possesses that quality mostly when 
it is heated. It is a remarkable fact that, when hot, 
the malleability of the iron should prevail, while, 
when cold, the brittleness of the carbon will pre- 
dominate. 

156. In steel, sometimes part of the iron will be 
replaced by manganese, which is a metal not to be 
found in nature in a pure metallic state, but which 
has a strange analogy with iron. 

157. Manganese forms, with carbon, some chemi- 
cal carburets in the same number and with the same 
proportions as iron. Its equivalent weight is 27.6, 
while that of iron is 28. Manganese can be ce- 
mented the same as iron, and will produce a kind 
of steel or raw metal, whose residuum, by the action 



92 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 



of acids, is similar to that left by those two products 
of iron under a similar treatment. 

The following analyses of the five carburets of 
manganese offer a perfect analogy with the corre- 
sponding compounds of iron, previously noted 
(146):- 





Mn.C 


Mn*.C 3 


Mn.C 


Mn 2 .C 


Mn'.C 


Manganese . . 
Carbon . . . 


69.38 
30.62 


75.11 
24.89 


81.91 
18.09 . 


90.05 
9.95 


94.77 
5.23 




100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 


100. 



158. The silver-like color of manganese and its 
feeble metallic lustre give a white appearance to the 
iron with which it may be combined; and to steel 
it imparts a fine bright grain, but also brittleness. 
The manufacturers of cast steel, by adding some 
oxide of manganese in their crucibles, aim at keeping 
the carbon in an accurate and proper proportion. 
Indeed, the oxygen of the manganese seizes the 
excess of carbon, and the metal reduced will increase 
the hardness and fineness of steel. 

Mr. Robert Mushet, who took out numerous patents 
in 1856 and 1857 for the addition of manganese to 
steel, not only claims that the former metal improves 
the quality of the latter carburet, but also asserts 
that malleable iron, by an addition of manganese, 
may be transformed into steel, without adding any 
carbon, or any iron carburet. But no fact has yet 



STEEL. 93 

been shown to prove this assertion in a practical 
way. 1 

159. Manganese acts advantageously on steels 
impregnated with silicon. 

This latter metal, unlike manganese, gives to steel 
a darker color. It is not found in the metallic state, 
but, like iron, its oxygenated compound (silica) is 
widely scattered, and is the basis of a great many 
rocks. 

160. The silica is reduced by the carbon of the 
fuel, and the silicon, set free, unites with the carbu- 
retted iron, if this metal is there in the metallic 
state. Therefore, steel may absorb more or less 
silicon, making with it an alloy which has not been 

1 It is likely that the so-called steel of Mr. Mushet, Jr., is 
nothing else but an alloy of iron and manganese, similar to 
those obtained by his father, Karsten, Berzelius, and others, 
which alloys have a certain hardness, and may be very well 
hardened. If we do not mistake, the action of the manganese 
is entirely different : from the oxide of manganese, the affinity 
of oxygen for the metal would counterbalance the affinity of 
carbon for iron in the pure steel. The result would be, that 
each time the oxide would be in contact with the carburet, no 
reaction would take place ; but as soon as the quantity of carbon 
is in excess of the saturating proportion, part of it would be 
expelled in the state of carbonic oxide, or carbonic acid, while 
the chemical steel would remain pure, with a probable addition 
of a small quantity of metallic manganese. 

On account of this hypothetical reaction, we have said that 
oxide of manganese will regulate the proportion of carbon. 



94 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

studied sufficiently, but has the property of giving 

body to the carburet of iron. 

161. Berzelius and Stromeyer, having exposed to 

the highest temperature of a blast furnace a mixture 1 

of iron, silica, and charcoal, obtained the following 

alloy: — 

Iron 90.70 

Silicon 5.70 

Carbon 3.60 



100.00 
This is nothing else but a raw iron saturated with 
silicon, very apt to produce cold short iron. 

162. In the analyses we have already given (147), 
it appears that most kinds of steel contain some 
silicon, which averages 0.259 in cast-steel and 0.237 
in cemented steel. 

163. Clouet, having succeeded in alloying iron 
and silicon in the following proportions : — 

Iron 99.20 

Silicon 0.80 



100.00 



1 The mixture was — 

Iron 300 or 58.14 

Silica 150 " 29.07 

Charcoal 6Q " 12.79 



100.00 



STEEL. 95 

and this alloy becoming somewhat hard by the pro- 
cess of hardening, it had been assimilated to steel. 
Indeed, it has been also inferred that silicon was as 
necessary as carbon in the production of steel. It 
would have been more prudent to say, that the 
metal thus obtained was a genuine {sui generis) al- 
loy, having the characteristics of steel, but which, 
otherwise, could not take its place. 

164. Magnesium is the elementary metal of mag- 
nesia, and appears to act nearly the same as silicon 
in steel, although it is to be found there in smaller 
quantity. The quality so much sought for in the 
manufacture of steel, of certain kinds of Swedish 
irons, may possibly be due to the presence of mag- 
nesia in spathic ores. Indeed, magnesium gives 
body and strength to steel. 

165. The same effect will be produced by alumi. 
nium, the basis of alumina, which appears to give 
to steel a very great hardness and a tenacity which 
cannot be surpassed, if we believe the metallurgist 
who asserts that aluminium enters into the 'compo- 
sition of the Indian steel called Wootz} The alloy 
of steel and aluminium is white, very brittle, and 
has a very fine grain. Karsten, who has analyzed 
many kinds of iron and steel, found only traces of 

1 When speaking of the manufacture of Indian steel (290), 
we will demonstrate that aluminium has nothing to do in its 
composition, but that its quality is entirely due to silicon. 



96 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

alumina. He has observed, also, that aluminium 
renders iron cold short; but as what may impair 
the structure of iron, is, on the contrary, often 
favorable to the quality of steel, the presence of 
aluminium in the latter metal will be rather advan- 
tageous by increasing its hardness. 

166. Manganese, silicon, magnesium, aluminium, 1 
produce intimate alloys with steel, but are not 
essential in its manufacture. They add certain 
qualities, such as hardness, ductility, body, &c; and, 
at the same time, they regulate (mostly the oxide of 
manganese) the proportion of carbon, but they are 
not indispensable. An excellent steel can be made 
by the simple alloy of iron and carbon : Professor 
Schaftautl, of Munich, has analyzed the steel of one 
of the hardest razors of Eogers, Sheffield, and could 
not find a trace of the above-mentioned metals. 

We will leave then these metals and their alloys, 
and will consider only the steel made of iron and 
carbon. 

167. These two substances, as we have already 
said, form an intimate, definite, and unchangeable 
alloy, which is sometimes called chemical alloy on 
account of the constancy of its elements. This 
alloy, once made, will admit in its mass a greater 

1 The alloy of Tungsten with steel, tried for the first time in 
Austria, is exceedingly hard, and has been found to answer 
well for turning tools, chisels, &c. — Trans. 



STEEL. 97 

quantity of one of the two elements; and without 
any change in its chemical nature, it may be modi- 
fied, present a different appearance, and possess new 
properties. 1 

168. For a good understanding of the reaction of 
iron with carbon, we will take a bar of pare iron 
which will be submitted gradually to the action of 
a combustible body. 

169. 1. The bar of iron is strongly heated in a 
blacksmith's fire, and immediately after is dipped 
into cold charcoal dust. The iron will absorb in its 
pores, distended by the heat, some molecules of car- 
bon separated from the impure charcoal, and which 
will penetrate the metal to a short distance from the 
surface. The iron becomes brittle, hard, resists the 
action of the file, and may be hardened. However, 
this is not steely iron. 

170. 2. Steely iron 2 is the product of an incom- 

1 It seems that the ancients had ascertained the fact of a 
primitive nucleus of metal, in which were afterwards mixed 
particles of a less pure material. Very likely this is the mean- 
ing of nucleus ferri of Pliny, which Dr. Lardner translates by 
well-purged iron, and Mr. Vergnaud by nodular ore. These 
translations do not seem to me to correspond with the meaning 
of the Latin naturalist. 

2 Steely iron being intermediate between iron and steel, is 
advantageously employed when steel is to be welded with iron, 
as in some tools, pieces of machinery, etc., requiring only a 

9 



98 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

plete refining of the pig metal, by which all the com- 
bined carbon is not burned out, and remains inti- 
mately mixed with the whole mass, thus making a 
beginning of an alloy. In the first case, carbon has 
been mechanically introduced into the iron ; in the 
second case, carbon was already there. These two 
kinds of iron having been hardened, it will be found 
that a file will " take" the steely iron more readily 
than the cemented one, because, in the former, the 
small quantity of carbon is equally distributed in 
the whole mass, while, in the latter, the file will 
immediately come in contact with all the carbon 
which is on or near the surface. The steely iron 
is a beginning of an alloy, and the other is the 
beginning of a cemented product. 

171. 3. If the bar of iron, when cold, is put in 
the middle of a certain quantity of cold charcoal 
dust, in a vessel perfectly air-tight, and the whole 
submitted to a strong and continuous heat, the iron 
will open its pores, will soften, and the molecules of 
carbon will slowly penetrate it from the surface 
towards the centre. At the beginning, it will be 
easy to follow the motion of the carbon, because its 
small black molecules will be seen inlaid in the 
gray texture of the iron ; but when the pores of the 
metal are kept open by these molecules, carbon will 

facing of steel. Many hammers, planes, railroad tires, etc. are 
made this way. mostly on the continent of Europe. —Trans. 



STEEL. 99 

soon be scattered all over the mass, changing the 
texture of the iron, which has then a peculiar crys- 
talline appearance. 

The cementation is now complete. The metal 
thus obtained is not steel yet, although it has that 
name ; but it contains the elements of steel in a 
heterogeneous and mechanically formed mass, which 
resists the action of the file, and may be hardened. 
This metal is termed cemented steel, 

172. Its peculiar characteristic is to be generally 
covered with blisters, or cavities caused by the ex- 
pansion, at a high temperature, of molecules of car- 
bon combined with the oxygen from the iron or 
from the air in the box, thus making gaseous bub- 
bles in the texture of the cemented bar. In Eng- 
land this metal is called blistered steel, and, in 
France, acier poule, which latter name is a corrup- 
tion of ampoule (blister). 

173. This union — we might say mechanical — of 
iron and carbon, which has not, and cannot possess 
any of the characteristics of the true alloy, which 
presents the defects of a heterogeneous and spongy 
mass without body, loses part of those defects after 
tilting or laminating. A perfect homogeneousness 
is not thus obtained, but the texture being closer, the 
carbon is in more intimate contact with the iron, 
and the metal becomes fibrous, tenacious, and may 
be hardened. However, some doubt will always 



100 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

exist whether the carbon is in the proper propor- 
tion to make, with the iron, the definite alloy of a 
true steel. 

174. 4. To transform this mechanical mixture 
into a definite alloy, and at the same time to pro- 
duce a complete homogeneousness, the cemented bar 
is broken into small pieces, about the length of one 
decimetre, and a certain quantity of these pieces is 
put into a refractory crucible, kept for several hours 
in an intense fire. The cemented iron melts, and 
produces a homogeneous mass of pure steel, if the 
carbon and the iron are in proper proportions. 

175. If it happens that the proportions are not 
satisfactory, the workman throws into the crucible 
some charcoal dust, or substances rich in carbon, 1 in 
order to perfect the quantity of carbon. But, lest 
it should be in excess, some oxide of manganese is 
added, which has the property of restoring the equi- 
librium. 

176. This new product is cast steel. It does not 
always possess the requisite proportions of a definite 
alloy, although it is near enough to be taken as 
such. When it holds too much carbon, this is 

1 Nearly every manager of cast-steel works has a secret. 
Some add old leather to the metal ; some use soot ; while others 
prefer plumbago, etc. The only result of the addition of these 
substances is to furnish carbon. 



STEEL. 101 

ascertained by its hardness and brittleness after 
hardening. If, on the contrary, iron predominates, 
the hardened steel will be " mild" and softer. 

These defects are corrected by a refining process, 
which will be spoken of hereafter. 

177. Let us consider, now, what is going on 
daring the formation of raw metal. In the lower 
part of the blast furnace the air introduced by the 
tuyere combines with an atom of carbon, and ascends 
through the boshes in the state of carbonic oxide 
(oxide of carbon). This, which must be transformed 
into carbonic acid before it escapes at the upper part 
of the stack, absorbs another atom of oxygen from 
the ore, which itself becomes reduced to the mi- 
nimum of oxidation, and soon becomes pure metal. 
Then the molten iron falls through the boshes, sur- 
rounded by carbon. It dissolves part of the carbon, 
becomes saturated, and is thus transformed into 
cast-steel. 

If the slag or cinder is not in sufficient quantity 
to envelop every drop of steel, in order to protect it 
against oxidation when it is going to fall on the 
hearth; the blast of the tuyere will partly decarbu- 
rize the steel, and the molten mass will be a very 
white iron, a kind of half-fine metal. If, on the con- 
trary, the temperature is very high, the carbon 
abundant, and the slag in sufficient quantity, instead 
of decarburization there will be a supersaturation of 
carbon, and a dissolution of this latter substance in 

9* 



102 TEEATISE ON STEEL. 

the steel already saturated to the proper point ; this 
forms gray pig iron. 

178. The metallurgists who desire to manufacture 
steel with raw metal, understand at once what 
remains for them to do. If they employ the fine 
metal, they must add carbon; if they use gray metal, 
they must burn part of its carbon. In a word, they 
must bring the carburet of iron back to the definite 
proportions of the pure steel, which is one and un- 
mingled. 

179. In the Alps, where a natural steel is manu- 
factured from raw iron, no other way is employed. 
The carburet of iron is partly refined, and the ope- 
ration is ended when the saturation of steel is nearly 
complete. This is only an approximation, because 
the appreciation of that degree of refining being left 
to the practical judgment of the workman, very sel- 
dom is the true moment of saturation obtained. 

180. In the Pyrenees, a kind of natural steel is 
obtained by the direct method. The ore is directly 
treated; the iron reduced into raw metal without 
the knowledge of the workman, 1 is afterwards re- 
fined and transformed into a state somewhat like 

1 Although it has "been denied that in the Catalan forges, the 
ore was transformed into raw metal before being reduced into 
iron, it is nevertheless certain that such raw metal may be 
allowed to run through the chio (opening for the escape of the 
slags) of the hearth, before the slags are tapped off. 



STEEL. 103 

steel by a peculiar mode of working. Nevertheless, 
it often happens that the workman is deceived, 
changes the direction of the blast, and, instead of 
obtaining natural steel, produces only iron, to his 
great astonishment. It is easy to understand the 
cause of this. 

181. To resume: if pure iron is cemented and 
cast; if white metal is carburized, or if gray metal 
is decarburized; if the iron ore is made to produce 
steel more or less directly ; and if pure iron and car- 
bon are thrown into a crucible to obtain cast steel, 
it is always the same theory, perfectly clear at this 
time, and which laughs at all the mysteries prac- 
tised by charlatans, and believed by the ignorant. 

182. All the difficulty is the proper dose of car- 
bon ; there is yet no industrial way to ascertain this 
with certitude, and without experimenting. The 
practised eye of the workman, his habit of always 
treating the same material, are the only guides at 
our disposal. The result is, that every steel-works 
produces a different quality, and that there is a 
multitude of varieties of cast steel. 

183. After these observations purely theoretical 
and of a more or less speculative character, the fol- 
lowing extracts from a work on steel by Reaumur 1 

1 Reaumur (Rene, Ant. Ferchault de), was born at La Ro- 
chelle in 1683, and died in 1757. In his works will be found 
a complete description, drawings, and all, of the actual pro- 
cesses for cementing steel and making malleable iron. — Trans. 



101 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

will be read with pleasure and surprise. It is re- 
markable to see how this skilful metallurgist has 
been able to discover and explain the theory of 
steel; and we do not know which is the more 
wonderful, the sagacity and oorrectness of mind of 
the celebrated savant, or the stupidity of the steel 
manufacturers who remained so long without under- 
standing him. 

184. "The workmen who manufacture the large 
sized files use only iron. Nevertheless, they make 
them as hard as steel files. The gunsmiths will 
give as much hardness to many parts of a gun, made 
entirely of iron, by case hardening. In this process, 
which will be fully explained hereafter, the pieces 
having received their proper shape from the hands 
of the workmen, are put into sheet iron boxes with 
a mixture of different drugs. 1 These boxes are 
smeared all over with some earth, and put into a 
furnace where they are submitted to a fire more or 
less protracted, according to the size of the pieces 
they contain. These pieces being taken off the fire, 
the workman dips them when red hot into cold 
water, where they harden the same as steel. 

185. " Why does iron become able to be so 
hardened by such an operation? In seeking for the 

1 We translate as nearly as possible the old French of Reau- 
mur. — Trans. 






STEEL. 105 

cause, I "have ascertained that the first layers of 
metal are converted into steel. The iron files will 
act then the same as steel files ; their teeth are of 
steel the same as the others. By experiments which 
it is useless to mention here, I have been convinced 
that this portion of iron is converted into steel, and 
of this workmen do not take notice; they use really 
steel tools, and believe them to be iron. 

186. "The inferences I have drawn from this 
observation are : that the substances employed for 
case hardening could be made use of as a basis of 
proper mixtures for converting iron into steel; that, 
if those who case harden, submitted their pieces to 
a more protracted fire, they would become steel to 
the centre ; this would be useless for the tools we 
have spoken of, which want hardness only in the 
first layers; but that observation was essential to 
me, who was endeavoring to transform iron bars 
entirely into steel. 

187. "The bases of the compositions used for case 
hardening are powdered charcoal, ashes, soot sea- 
soned with salts, and mixed with various substances 
of a vegetable, animal, or mineral nature. The 
secrets taught for converting iron into steel are 
founded generally upon these compositions ; but 
each workman has his favorite ingredients, his par- 
ticular doses of which he makes a mystery. After 
all, even had the workmen of Germany, England, and 



106 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

other countries taught me their compositions, I 
would have nevertheless made the experiments which 
I will mention hereafter; I would not have been able 
to spare one. Independent of the advantage for the 
kingdom, the question in itself was important 
enough to be examined thoroughly. It was neces- 
sary to ascertain if the ingredients employed were 
the best, if in their stead the effect of some other 
would not be more sure and more rapid ; to ascer- 
tain, for instance, if certain salts are worth the pre- 
ference they enjoy; if some others, which might be 
used more successfully, have not been neglected; if 
in these compositions there were some substances 
which should be discarded as injurious or at least 
useless. It was necessary to be able to determine 
the exact proportion of every substance, to try if it 
might not be possible to make steel something 
better than is done to day ; to see how far steel 
could be perfected. At last, it was necessary to sys- 
tematize the mode of operation in converting iron 
into steel, to have this art known and easy to prac- 
tise by workmen ; but this art is to be found before 
it can be described. That object could not be 
attained without a number of experiments seemingly 
enormous ; I have dared to undertake them, and I 
shall be well satisfied with the work they have 
entailed upon me, if they prove of some advantage 
to the public. 

188. "We cannot afford not to begin by giving 



STEEL. 107 

an idea of the way the substances necessary for con- 
verting iron into steel are employed. Ordinarily 
they use boxes or large square crucibles, into which 
are inclosed the bars of iron which must be trans- 
formed into steel; some persons have these boxes or 
crucibles made of sheet iron, some use cast iron, 
while some others use only clay crucibles. Instead 
of boxes, a few have furnaces built for the purpose, 
where long bars can be placed. Whatever be the 
converting apparatus, these bars are cut into lengths 
proportionate to the size of the vessels ; they are 
laid down, and a layer of the composition necessary 
for transforming them into steel is put between each 
layer of iron. The crucibles once filled are covered, 
luted, and submitted to a violent fire which is more 
or less protracted, according to the construction of 
the furnace, and according to the quantity and the 
thickness of the inclosed iron. The question was 
to make experiments which would show the effects 
produced upon iron by various substances separated 
or mixed together in different proportions, which 
would envelop that iron in a fire while it is heated 
at a temperature sufficiently high and protracted ; 
with this in view, I had made a quantity of small 
clay crucibles square or oblong. All the crucibles 
for one operation were equal and similar; I inclosed 
in each crucible pieces of iron of the same quality, 
and equal in weight and in size; I gave them an 
equal heat, as near as could possibly be done; I sur- 
rounded the iron of each crucible with a different 



103 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

substance or with a mixture of various substances. 
Thus, the different changes in the iron were entirely 
due to the difference of substances, all other condi- 
tions having been the same. I have often used 
crucibles which held only one-half or one-quarter of 
a pound of iron with the surrounding stuff; thus I 
was enabled to despatch thirty or forty experiments 
at once in a rather small furnace. If I had begun 
by experiments on a large scale, the revenues of a 
powerful state would have scarcely paid for all the 
trials I wanted to make. Therefore I will say, in 
passing, that most of those who have tried to con- 
vert the irons of the kingdom into steel, have failed 
because they began the work on too grand a scale. 
We think that some of them had the basis of the 
secret; but before they could know what was to be 
added or suppressed, according to the nature of the 
irons they had to employ, or according to the con- 
struction of the furnaces they were obliged to use, 
they always wanted to begin by converting at once 
a large quantity of iron. Their first experiments 
were so expensive, that before they were able to 
finish all those necessary to correct the proportions 
of their compositions, they had expended all their 
own means and those of the persons with whom 
they were associated. 

189. "I began by trying eight different mixtures. 
Case hardening gave me the idea of some of them ; 
I added some which I found printed, and one which 



STEEL. 109 

Mr. d'Angervilliers, attentive to the welfare of the 
kingdom, had found in Germany, while commanding 
at Strasbourg. 

190. "That first experiment was at least as suc- 
cessful as I expected ; the irons from all my cruci- 
bles, after fifty -nine hours of fire, were more than 
half converted into steel; heated a second time, their 
transformation was complete. To be sure, they were 
not such steels as I wanted ; some were coarse, some 
scarcely harder than iron, some others were fine 
grained and hard, but they could not resist the ham- 
mer, and it would have been impossible to work 
them. However, it was enough to show me that I 
was in the right direction, but that it was necessary 
to distinguish what was wanting in some of my 
compositions, and what was in excess in some others. 
Every one was to be analyzed, to know the effect of 
each constituent principle, which different substances 
were afterwards to be combined in different propor- 
tions. But, in order to forget nothing, and to go as far 
back as possible, I thought it was necessary, first, to as- 
certain if the iron which had been heated a long time 
and violently, without being exposed to the direct ac- 
tion of the flame, would not acquire thus the properties 
of steel, or if a continuous fire alone had not caused 
part of the changes I had observed. To be certain 
of the fact, I inclosed pieces of iron in different cru- 
cibles with inactive or nearly inactive substances. 
In some, the iron, was enveloped with potter's clay 
10 



110 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

similar to that of the crucible, some with lime, some 
with plaster of Paris, some with burnt bones pow- 
dered ; while with others different kinds of sand, 
leached ashes, and powdered glass were employed. 
All these experiments taught me that fire alone was 
not able to transform into steel the iron which was 
surrounded only by earthy materials nearly inactive. 
However, several of these substances had different 
effects upon the iron, which are worth being noted, 
and which might be useful. 

191. "Lime, for instance, or calcined bones, far 
from imparting some of the quality of steel to iron, 
made it softer under the file and the hammer; and 
this observation might subsequently be applied to 
uses as important as the conversion of iron into 
steel. 

192. " But a second observation, more peculiar on 
account of the preceding one, is that the plaster of 
Paris, which in itself is nothing else but the lime of 
a kind of soft stone, and from which results similar 
to those from ordinary lime might have been ex- 
pected, has produced very different effects. Indeed, 
it did not change iron into steel ; but who would 
have supposed that it was one of the most powerful 
fluxes for iron? When I had given to the crucible, 
filled with plaster of Paris, as much heat as to the 
other crucibles, I found the bars of iron reduced into 
a round and somewhat flattened mass which had 



STEEL. Ill 

taken the shape of the bottom of the crucible. When 
the heat was not powerful enough to smelt the iron, 
this was entirely divided into scales which could be 
separated with the fingers, leaving only in the centre 
of the bars some fibres of soft iron. These scales 
could be broken the same as forge scales. 1 I have 
sometimes covered the crucibles where I had put 
plaster of Paris, and I saw a singular phenomenon : 
the plaster would boil and spirt out of the crucible, 
the same as a liquid, but a great deal higher. They 
were true boils, true jets of a fine powder, because 
the plaster had remained powdered such as when 
put in ; the crucibles I had filled with plaster of 
Paris were nearly always broken before a great heat 
had been attained. After this experiment, I have 
tried if ordinary lime or calcined bones would not 
help the fusion of iron, and I could see nothing of 
the kind. 

193. "The iron which had been surrounded with 
sand, such as that found at Fontenai-aux-Eoses, and 
which is much esteemed by the founders of Paris, 
seemed milder after it had been taken off the cru- 
cible; it would acquire its previous hardness only 
after dipping in cold water. This experiment shows 
that blacksmiths may, without fear, throw this kind 

1 The reader will see by this paragraph, what was the chemis- 
try of that epoch, and the difficulties Reaumur had to encounter. 
We do not suppose that, now, anybody would use plaster of 
Paris (sulphate of lime), even as a flux for iron. — Trans, 



112 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

of sand upon the iron they do not want to burn 
in the forge fire, and that, without increasing its re- 
sistance to the file or the hammer. 

194. "Although the iron, during this experiment, 
had not assumed any of the qualities of steel, we 
must note in this, and several other cases, that it had 
undergone some changes caused mostly, I believe, by 
the fire. The iron bars which were fibrous lost their 
fibre, and the bars whose structure was lamellar had 
their laminae smaller. 

195. " The pieces of iron which were enveloped 
with potter's clay, English and soft clay, remained 
also pure iron. However, they seemed to resist the 
file more than those put into other compositions. 

196. " Leached ashes had the same effect as pot- 
ter's clay. 

197. " Glass approaches nearly to the nature of 
sands; it holds, indeed, salts which render it more 
fusible, but it keeps also the salts it has dissolved. 
The iron in some crucibles was covered with glass 
passed through a very fine sieve. This iron became 
a little harder, but without turning steel at all. 

198. " The remarkable point in this experiment 
was, that the bars, which when put into the crucible 
were black, dirty, and somewhat rusty, came out 



STEEL. 113 

perfectly clear. The steel which most readily gets 
rid of its scale by hardening, is not so white in the 
place where it has been hardened the most. The 
glass had melted, had soaked, and we might say, had 
washed the pieces of iron ; it had absorbed all the 
dirt without touching the scales, the volume of the 
iron not having decreased sensibly. Several arts 
require an iron perfectly clean ; the scouring or 
pickling is made with sour liquids as in the case of 
the iron used for tin plates ; it is possible that, in- 
stead of these liquids, a process similar to the preced- 
ing experiment could be made use of; should it suc- 
ceed, such a long and tiresome work as in tinning 
iron or making tin plates, would be avoided. 

199. "But in regard to our principal object, the 
result of the previous experiments is: that iron could 
not be converted into steel by heat alone; that heat 
is not helped by inactive substances of a too earthy 
nature, and devoid of oil or salts ; and that the earths 
themselves, do not contain anything which might 
further the conversion of iron into steel. 

200. "The persons who case harden, require the 
juice of several plants for hardening iron ; many of 
them employ a great deal of garlic in their com- 
positions. Never were the most savory sauces sea- 
soned with as much garlic juice, as were the inert 
matters surrounding the iron of some of my cru- 

10* 



114 ' TREATISE ON STEEL. 

cibles; but this seasoning was not active enough, 
and did not change the nature of the iron. 

201. " I have tried afterwards what might be the 
action of seeds and fatty matters upon iron. I have 
saturated, with several kinds of grease, such as tallow, 
oils, mostly linseed oil, the earths and the lime which 
I had previously ascertained to be without effect. 
This pasty mixture was used for wrapping the iron 
of different crucibles. I found out by these experi- 
ments that oils alone cannot act upon iron to convert 
it into steel. It happens, indeed, that these oils are 
burned sooner than wanted ; and although, to pre- 
vent that rapid burning, I had my crucible luted 
with great care, I could not perceive any change in 
the iron towards steel. 

202. " I have also tried the effect of salts, whether 
by inclosing the iron in various kinds of salts, or 
by mixing a large quantity of these salts with earthy 
and inactive substances. These experiments have 
taught also that salts alone cannot give to iron any 
property of steel; all their action was to cut the 
fibres of soft iron, without giving it any power to 
become granular and hardened. 

203. " But I have seen that this result, which could 
not be obtained by fire alone, neither by fatty or oily 
matters alone, nor by salts alone, might be attained 
by oils and salts mixed in certain proportions. It 



STEEL. 115 

is known that soap is precisely an oil thickened by 
alkaline salts, so as to become solid. I have mixed 
soap in different proportions with earthy substances; 
the iron inclosed in that mixture was half trans- 
formed into steel ; i. e., the lower part was so, while 
the upper part had remained iron. If the transfor- 
mation was not complete, this was not due to the want 
of activity of the soap, but to its melting, thus acting 
only on that part of the iron with which it was in 
contact. The iron, whose nature had been changed, 
became indeed a very inferior steel ; but, such as it 
was, there was proof that the conversion of iron into 
steel is to be expected with a mixture of salts and 
oily matters. 

204. "After that, I went on trying substances 
naturally rich in oils, and in salts; I have tried first 
these substances without any mixture. I have put in 
some of my crucibles powdered charcoal; in som* 
pit coal ; in some soot, as it comes out of chimneys, 
or after letting it burn. In other crucibles I put 
horn, burned to the charring point, but not to ashes, 
which was powdered and afterwards sifted; and old 
leather burned and treated the same as horn. I have 
also tried the excrements of various animals, such 
as horses, chickens, pigeons, whether burnt or un- 
burnt. I found that each of these substances had 
the power to change iron into steel, and this might 
be expected from the oils and salts they are impreg- 
nated with. But all of these substances are not 



116 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

equally powerful. Charcoal, soot, old burned leather, 
may alone change iron into a fine and hard steel ; 
but generally that steel is difficult to work, and after 
being forged remains full of cracks and flaws. How- 
ever, these materials require a fire somewhat pro- 
tracted; the action of soot and old leather is more 
rapid than that of charcoal. Horn, so much vaunted 
by steel-makers, did not seem to me to be more ad- 
vantageous than soot; the effect was even less. Ashes 
do not make the iron difficult to work, but transform 
very little of it into steel ; and that steel is so coarse 
that it is not worth the name. Pigeon dung produces 
a fine steel, but harsh ; i. e., when forged at a high tem- 
perature, it would break and fly off under the ham- 
mer. 1 Horse and chicken dung had scarcely any 
more effect than ordinary ashes. Pit-coal, previously 
powdered and sifted, had a very rapid effect; it had 
diminished considerably the volume of the iron, and 
had corroded and transformed it into hard and fine, 
but harsh steel. 

205. "As a general result of these last experi- 
ments, it appeared to me that several of the ingre- 
dients above mentioned would enter into convenient 
compositions for converting iron into steel, and that 
some should be avoided, or their action somewhat 
moderated, such as those which produce a harsh 

1 This is due to the phosphorus found in certain quantity in 
the dung of birds. — Trans. 



STEEL. 117 

steel. On the contrary the action, too slow or too 
feeble, of some others was to be increased ; and for 
that, it was necessary to try if the addition of some 
salt would not make them more powerful. 

206. "Consequently I have searched how the action 
of these substances could be aided, and from what 
salts such aid might be expected. The more expert 
ments are complicated, the more difficult it is to 
come to a decision on the causes of even their suc- 
cess. Thus, it was more difficult to decide upon the 
effect of every salt, than upon the other materials I 
had tried. The salts, as we have already seen, do 
not aid in the transformation of iron into steel, 
when they are alone or mixed with matters of a too 
earthy nature. By other experiments I learned 
what was the action of charcoal alone. I took it as a 
basis, and I have tried what would be its effect ac- 
cording to the kind of salt with which it was mixed. 
It is in that way I thought proper to try first the 
effect of the different kinds of salts. I took an 
equal weight of each of them, which I mixed with a 
much greater quantity of charcoal. All the weights 
were equal for every crucible, and of course the 
pieces of iron were equal. Afterwards, I made 
similar trials with the same salts, but giving them 
as a basis, and for a change, a mixture of soot, 
ashes, and charcoal, whose proportions will be indi- 
cated hereafter. 

" The salts tried in these two different ways, gave 



118 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

nearly the same results ; and here is what I found 
the most striking in these experiments repeated 
several times : 

207. " It seemed to me that powerful alkalies 
helped the conversion of iron into steel, but that 
they caused that steel to be difficult to work, to be 
full of flaws, and incapable of welding or drawing 
out. This I saw when using different kinds of soda, 
those of Carthagena, of Alicante, and potassa, &c. 
The natron of Egypt, which seems to possess the 
nature of an alkali, and which some chemists give 
as an example of an alkali not made by the hands 
of man, gave me also a harsh steel. 

208. "Other salts would appear as hindering 
rather than helping the effect of charcoal ; such was 
borax. I doubted also if alum or green vitriol had 
helped much in the transformation of iron; and I 
had some certitude only after having used them in 
a much larger proportion than the other salts. 

209. "A peculiar effect of some salts is, that the 
steel they produce is not lasting. Such steel, which 
after being forged and hardened once, had a fine 
grain ; when forged and hardened a second time, 
would scarcely have any grain. However, this sin- 
gular effect was not constantly produced by the 
same salts. 1 mean that, when wishing to reproduce 
such steel with the same salts, I have not always 



STEEL. 119 

succeeded. The salts which gave me sometimes a 
steel so little lasting have not the same nature, and 
this makes the phenomenon more difficult to ex- 
plain. These salts are sal ammoniac, sel de verre, 1 
green vitriol, saltpetre concentrated by tartar, 2 or 
salt found after burning two parts of tartar mixed 
with one part of saltpetre. This latter salt has pro- 
duced a steel difficult to work, the same as with all 
other alkaline salts. 

"It has been objected that steels made from 
wrought iron would lose their fine grain the more 
they are worked ; but this is not a general defect. 
It belongs to steels made with salts bearing analogy 
with those we have just spoken of. Steels from 
wrought iron will stand nearly the same as those 
made directly from the fusion of ores, when they 
have been treated with proper ingredients. 

210. "The most important conclusion I could 
draw from my experiments with salts, was that among 
all others, common salt or sea salt is the most suita- 
ble to convert iron into a fine and hard steel, easily 
forged, and which does not deteriorate by working. 
Rocksalt, or the salt extracted from the boilers 
where saltpetre is refined, although having the same 
nature, never succeeded as well as the salt extracted 
from the water of the sea. Although I believe that the 

1 We do not know if " sel de verre" is soluble glass (silicate 
of potassa or soda) or sandiver (dross separated from glass). 

2 Black flux. — Trans. 



120 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

salt extracted from the mother liquors of saltpetre 
could take the place of that extracted from sea water, I 
state with faithfulness what appeared to me, when I 
say that I succeeded better with common salt. 

211. "In order to have more complete experi- 
ments with the salts, after having tried the effect of 
dry salts, I made some attempts with fluid salts, the* 
spirits of salts. I have saturated with aqua fortis 
the charcoal with which I wanted to fill the crucible, 
until it had acquired the consistency of a soft paste. 
The iron covered with this paste has become a kind 
of steel, which remained such after the first harden- 
ing; but after a second forging and hardening, it 
became iron again. If we had not taken as a rule, 
in this first part of the work, to avoid every argu- 
ment, this experiment would be a fit occasion to ex- 
plain why steels made with certain salts will not 
last, as would be the case if they were produced 
with charcoal alone. I thought it was useless to go 
further with experiments on spirits of salts. It 
would not be convenient, in practice, to employ 
them ; the expenses would be greatly increased. It 
is to be feared, also, that steel produced with those 
spirits, no matter what they are, would not stand 
the fire like that made with dry salts. Moreover, 
there would be a great evaporation of the spirits 
inclosed in the crucibles. 1 

1 There are a great many other reasons for not using "such 
spirits," which the reader will understand without further ex- 
planation. — Trans. 



STEEL. 121 

212. "Besides the salts, I thought I should try if 
it might not be advantageous to employ various mine- 
ral substances, which are great fluxes for iron, and 
might, of course, be suspected of changing its tex- 
ture. Some of these substances are pointed out as 
excellent for some kinds of hardening. Such are 
antimony, arsenic, ordinary sulphur, and verdigris. 
But no matter how the first three substances were 
employed, I found them good only for spoiling the 
iron or the steel. As for the verdigris, used in 
small quantity, the same as with the salts," it did 
not appear to me as producing such bad effects as 
might have been expected. It did not prevent the 
welding of steel, which is contrary to the prejudice 
of workmen, who think that everything holding 
copper will render iron impossible to be worked. 

"The texture of the iron which had been sur- 
rounded with charcoal dust, mixed with antimony, 
had been changed ; but it was not steel. The 
laminae were no longer bright, neither were the 
fibres like those of iron, nor the grains like those 
of steel. The molecules had an. intermediate appear- 
ance; they were flatter than the grains of steel and 
more raised than the iron laminae; they were of a 
dull color, while the fibres of iron are bright. 

" Ordinary sulphur, used in the same dose and 
with the same quantity of charcoal, as the preceding 
substances, has turned a soft iron into an intractable 
iron, and has prevented its conversion into steel by 
the charcoal. But, when I had mixed the same 
11 



122 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

quantity of charcoal with a weight of the acid of 
sulphur proportionate to that of the sulphur in the 
preceding mixture, the iron was transformed into a 
coarse steel, difficult to weld. 

"After having tried all the substances which I 
regarded as capable of acting upon the iron ; after 
having ascertained those which should be entirely re- 
jected, and those which could be employed with some 
success, it remained to try what might be the result 
of the active materials differently combined and in 
various proportions, and among these combinations, 
which- was the most advantageous. With all these 
experiments, it was not easy for the most advan- 
tageous compositions for converting iron into steel, 
to escape my attention. Indeed, the number of 
combinations was large, but not so considerable as 
might appear. It is not necessary to go forward 
by insensible degrees, when sensible effects are to be 
produced ; a physical precision lies between some- 
what extended limits. 

213. "jAfter all these experiments, the composi- 
tions which appeared to me as answering the best, 
required only some powdered charcoal, ashes, soot, 
and common salt. But from these materials, mixed 
in different proportions, various compositions can 
be compounded. One, which I consider very proper 
for converting iron into a very fine and very hard 
steel, is made of 2 parts of soot, 1 part of charcoal, 
1 part of ashes, and f of one part, or something 



. STEEL. 123 

less, of common salt, i. e., if 16 pounds of soot are 
employed, 8 of charcoal, 8 of ashes, and 6 or only 
5 pounds of common salt should be added. 

214. "I prefer this composition, when it is neces- 
sary to convert into steel the irons having the best 
properties for this purpose. In another part of this 
work will be found the method of discerning the 
characteristics of these irons ; but this same com- 
position is not the best adapted for certain kinds 
of iron ; by it, the steel would be too difficult to 
forge, to weld, or to draw, and after having been 
worked it would remain scabby. These kinds of 
iron require a less active composition; the following 
is used : 2 parts of ashes, 1 part of soot, 1 part of 
charcoal, and about J of part of common salt. 

" This latter composition might, as the former one, 
be successfully employed with irons most adapted 
for becoming steel ; it will convert them, the same 
as the other, into good steel, but its action is slower. 
When this mixture is used, the operation is ended 
only after a great deal more protracted fire; this 
reason alone would make the first composition pre- 
ferable, and we might add, also, on account of a 
superior degree of fineness given to the steel. 

" Moreover, it will be seen, by what will follow, 
that this mixture may be always freely employed 
with various kinds of iron, although the steels thus 
produced are somewhat difficult to work. We will 
give the proper remedies for correcting its bad 



124 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

effects, and these remedies will not cost much more 
in time and in charcoal, than what is wanting in the 
composition. Generally, in prescriptions, no change 
whatever in the dose is allowed ; this is nearly 
always the case with secret givers. We would imi- 
tate them, and this we do not wish, if we failed to 
give the information, that between the two compo- 
sitions we have just given, there is an infinity of 
intermediate mixtures which may be successfully 
used. If we have determined with such precision 
the doses of the two preceding compositions, it is 
because the workman must have a basis to stand 
upon ; because these doses show the limits between 
which it is proper to remain. Too far from them, 
there would be danger of producing coarse steel, or 
of making the operation too protracted. If, for in- 
stance, in the first composition, the dose of ashes was 
diminished or entirely omitted, it would be difficult 
to find irons which could, by it, be converted into 
steels easy to work. If, on the contrary, the quan- 
tity of ashes were increased too much, if it were to 
enter as three-fourths of the composition, and if the 
other fourth were to be divided between the charcoal 
and the soot, a much more protracted fire would be 
necessary to turn the iron into steel, or a much 
greater quantity of composition ; and often only a 
coarse steel would be produced. But when propor- 
tions intermediate between the two stated limits are 
employed, no inconvenience will arise. For instance, 
one-third of soot, one third of ashes, and one-third 



STEEL. 125 

of charcoal, with the quantity of common salt of one 
of the compositions, will produce a mixture which 
will not fail. But, if an iron having all the qualities 
for becoming a good steel is at hand, the first com- 
position is better, for the reasons already explained; 
and, if the iron to be used has only some of the 
requisite qualities, it is more secure to use the 
second mixture. This is enough for a direction in 
practi'ce; we will add only as a rule that, the more 
oily matters there are in the composition, the more 
danger there is of producing a steel full of flaws 
and difficult to forge; but the formation of steel is 
more rapid. The oily matters are found mostly in 
soot and charcoal; therefore, their quantity will be 
lessened by diminishing the dose of the two latter 
substances, or by increasing the proportion of ashes. 
This latter is principally employed for moderating the 
effect of the two other ingredients ; it acts also by 
its alkaline salts, which are not in sufficient quantity 
to produce the bad effects we have pointed out, when 
speaking of the action of various salts. 

"In order to obtain a greater certitude, relative to 
the bad effect of a too large proportion of oily mat- 
ters, I soaked with linseed oil the substances of the 
first composition ; the steel was rendered very diffi- 
cult to forge, while, cceteris paribus, it would not have 
been so, if oil had not been added to the composition. 

"Also, the dose of common salt we have indicated, 
is not so essential that it could not be changed ; it 
could even be entirely omitted, but the operation 

11* 



126 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

would be slower ; common salt makes it more rapid, 
and contributes to the hardness and fineness of steel. 
In the absence of common salt, a greater quantity 
of composition would be needed for the same amount 
of iron. The dose might be increased also; but up 
to a certain point it is injurious; if, for instance, 
twice the quantity is used, it is to be feared that the 
steel will be full of flaws, whether this effect is pro- 
duced by salt itself, or because it helps the absorp- 
tion by iron of the oily matters. However, an 
increase of common salt never seemed to me to pro- 
duce such bad effects as an increase of oily sub- 
stances. 

"I have put into a crucible powdered charcoal 
alone, i. e., without salt, or any other substance, but 
in large proportion, considering the weight of iron. 
This iron was converted into fine steel, but after a 
length of time nearly double what would have been 
necessary with the first composition, and this steel 
was full of flaws, after having been forged. 

" When I introduced into my mixtures inactive 
substances, or nearly so, such as potter's clay, sand, 
or lime, I have stopped or hindered the effect of the 
active materials, according to the greater or smaller 
dose of the inactive ones. This was to be expected. 
However, if it was necessary to convert into steel 
some kinds of iron having too much tendency to 
become harsh steels, it would be possible to render 
them tractable, by regulating the effect of the active 
substances by some absorbing material. If, to our 



STEEL. 127 

composition made of: 2 parts of ashes, 1 part of 
charcoal, 1 part soot, and three-fourths of a part of 
salt, we add one part of ordinary lime, or better still, 
one part of bone-lime, 1 i. e., one part of bones burned 
and reduced to ashes, we have a composition by 
which certain kinds of iron have become steels easy 
to forge, while with any other composition they 
would not have been able to bear the hammer. The 
proportion of inactive matters may even be in- 
creased. I have sometimes converted iron into steel 
after having mixed two parts of bone-ashes with one 
part of wood-ashes, one of charcoal, one of soot, and 
the ordinary dose of common salt. But, after all, it 
is better not to try to change into steel irons which 
require such correctives in the mixture ; if their 
proportion is too considerable, they entirely prevent 
the success of the operation. For instance, I have 
tried a process published in a book of Secrets for the 
Arts, printed at Paris, by Lambert, in 1716, t. i., page 
12, and which did not succeed, on account, I believe, 
of a dose of quicklime too large in comparison 
with the other ingredients. This process requires 
one part of soot, three-fourths of a part of oak- 
ashes, one-fourth of a part of eggs mixed; the whole 
is to be boiled in twelve parts of water, until these 
twelve parts are reduced to four. The pieces of iron 
are dipped in it, and afterwards made into layers 
alternating with other layers, composed of three 

1 Beware of the phosphorus in the hones. — Trans. 



128 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

parts of charcoal, three of quicklime, one of soot, 
and one fourth of one part of dried salt. This fine 
process left my iron very soft, which result I attri- 
bute to an excess of quicklime. 

" Sometimes I have added one eighth of a part 
of lime to my ordinary compositions. In such small 
dose it never was injurious; it was even useful by 
diminishing certain kinds of blisters, of which we 
will speak hereafter, and which sometimes raise on 
the surface of the iron. A dose of plaster of Paris, 
smaller than that of lime, i. e., one-twelfth of one 
part, is even more efficacious to prevent this phe- 
nomenon. 

"Powdered glass, which some persons employ in 
their compositions, has scarcely any other use than . 
to diminish these blisters ; but it is no better than 
lime or plaster of Paris, and it would be a trouble 
in the manufacture to save enough glass for 
future use. Moreover, the defect which it remedies 
is so small that it should cause no uneasiness. The 
principal object in view, in large establishments, 
is to use only those materials which are easy to 
obtain. 

"The above mentioned book, at page 81, teaches 
us another composition, one ingredient of which, 
for instance, would be difficult to obtain in large 
quantities. It is compounded of twelve parts of 
beech charcoal extinguished in urine, ten parts of 
horn, three parts of ashes of wood newly cut, and 
three parts of the powdered bark of pomegranate. 



STEEL. 129 

Where would manufacturers find their stock of this 
latter powder, which, moreover, I consider as more 
injurious than useful ? 

215. "But, coming back to the two compositions 
which we regarded as preferable, they offer the ad- 
vantage of requiring only drugs which are easy to 
find everywhere, and which, excepting common salt, 1 
are cheap everywhere; their preparation also is not 
expensive. The soot may be passed through a 
coarse sieve, but if it is fine, it is better. It is not 
at all necessary to have it calcined ; this I found 
out, after using it burnt and unburnt. As regards 
the ashes, notwithstanding all that has been said 
upon the proper choice, they are always good, when 
coming from freshly-cut wood, whatever be the 
species of the tree. Ashes are sifted through a 
sieve not particularly fine ; a similar sieve may be 
used for charcoal, after this has been powdered 
with a pestle. Any kind of charcoal may be 
employed, although the most active is that of oak. 
Charcoal from white wood did not seem to me to 
produce sensibly different results. Beech charcoal, 
which is intermediate between those from oak and 
white wood, may possibly be preferred ; but if we 
speak openly, these differences are so difficult to 
ascertain by the most exact experiments, that such 
slight differences are of no importance in practice." 

1 In Reaumur's time common salt was verily heavily taxed. — 
Trans. 



ANALYSIS OF STEEL 



QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY. 

216. Steel, we have said, is principally a com- 
pound of iron and carbon, and these two elements 
are to be found in it, in two peculiar states: either 
forming an alloy in definite proportions, nearly a 
chemical combination ; or dissolved in this first alloy, 
only as a mixture. 

217. If the proportions of iron and carbon in 
the definite alloy were exactly known, the analysis 
of the compound metal, in regard to these two ele- 
ments, would be limited to the quantitative deter- 
mination of one of them, the other being ascertained 
by induction and calculation. But, although it is 
rational to think that carbon is not over a certain 
quantity, this quantity has not yet been determined ; 
or rather, there is in steel, as in pig metal, something 
which it has not yet been possible to decide upon, 
and which produces differences in analysis and 
throws a kind of mystery on that important matter. 
Until better informed, we shall be obliged to separate 



QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY. 131 

in the assays, the combined carbon from the uncom- 
bined carbon or graphitic carbon. 

218. Besides carbon, as has been stated already, 
steel contains silicon, magnesium, aluminium, man- 
ganese, sulphur, and phosphorus. 

219. The steel which is to be analyzed must be 
previously reduced to a very fine powder, in order 
to facilitate the action of the reagents ; on this sub- 
ject, it might be useful to consult the new edition 
(1858) of the "Maitre de Forges, 1 ' where all the pre- 
liminary manipulations for these kinds of analyses 
are described accurately. 

On account of the great hardness of steel, a file 
should not be used for obtaining the fine powder to 
be analyzed ; fragments of the file itself would con- 
taminate the assay sample. It is necessary to break 
the pieces of steel to be analyzed, under a cylindrical 
pestle, strongly hardened, fitting into a mortar of 
hardened steel similar to those used for pulverizing 
hard minerals. The result is passed through a fine 
sieve, and the coarser fragments are, if wanted, pul- 
verized again. 

220. This powder, having been made as fine as 
possible, is separated into three portions: The first 
is for determining the proportion of carbon ; the 
second, for ascertaining the quantity of sulphur and 
phosphorus; and the third one will be used for find- 



132 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

ing out the various constituent principles which, 
excepting combined carbon, may be left in the 
residuum. 

221. 1. Estimation of the Carbon. — Some white 
sand is ground with some oxide of copper, and the 
mixture is calcined, in order to destroy all organic 
matters. 30 to 40 grammes of this powder are 
mixed with the same quantity of powdered steel, 
and triturated some time in an agate mortar. Dur- 
ing this trituration, the mortar is put upon a piece 
of glazed paper, in order to lose none of the powder, 
which is afterwards mixed with six or eight times its 
weight of fused chromate of lead; the whole is then 
introduced, with the ordinary precautions, into a 
combustion tube, at the end of which are a few 
grammes of perfectly dry chlorate of potassa. The 
combustion is then conducted in the usual way; 
the carbonic acid passes through a chloride of 
calcium tube, and is absorbed and weighed in a 
Liebig apparatus holding a solution of caustic 
potassa, whose specific gravity is 1.28. 

222. Although nitrogen has never been found in 
steel, 1 a search might nevertheless be made for it. 
Its percentage may be ascertained by mixing some 

1 Many metals, in the molten state, absorb large quantities of 
gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and keep part of 
them in cooling. See experiments by MM. Caron, St. Claire 
Deville, Fremy, and by Professors Abel, and Graham. — Trans. 



QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY. 133 

of the assay sample with soda lime, and absorbing 
the products of the combustion by dilute hydro- 
chloric acid, put in a Will and Warrentrapp ap- 
paratus. If there is nitrogen, chloride of ammonium 
will be produced, which can be estimated in the 
usual way, and which will give the quantity of 
nitrogen in steel. 

223. 2. Estimation of Sulphur and Phosphorus. — 
The pulverized steel of the second portion is 
treated with fuming nitric acid at a moderate heat; 
it is soon attacked, and nitrous vapors begin to 
escape, without trace of sulphuretted hydrogen. 
The solution is then evaporated to dryness, and the 
residuum is treated again with very dilute hydro- 
chloric acid. A small quantity of this solution is 
filtered and a few drops of chloride of barium added 
to it ; after standing a few hours, if a precipitate 
appears, the remainder of the solution is filtered and 
treated again with chloride of barium. After 
entire settling of the sulphate of baryta, it is col- 
lected upon a filter, washed, dried, and calcined, 
thus giving the necessary elements by which the 
quantity of sulphur in the metal may be calculated 
and known. 

The excess of the baryta in the solution is after- 
wards precipitated by a sufficient quantity of 
sulphuric acid, and separated by filtration. A 
solution of tartrate of ammonia is then added, in 
sufficient quantity to prevent the precipitation of 
12 



134 TEEATISE ON STEEL. 

iron by ammonia, and a great excess is required at 
this period of the operation. Sulphuretted hydrogen 
is also allowed to pass through the solution for 
several hours. 

The liquid is then left to stand in a warm place, 
until it has acquired a light yellow color. It is 
now filtered rapidly, and the precipitate washed 
with water containing some sulphide of ammonium. 
After drying, the ammonia salts are expelled by 
calcination, and the residue is a compound of 
phosphoric acid with some lime, alumina, and 
alkalies, 1 which are mixed with a certain quantity 
of a mixture of carbonates of soda and potassa, and 
melted in a platinum crucible. The melted mass 
is afterwards dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the 
phosphoric acid is estimated, by the usual way, 
in the state of double phosphate of ammonia and 
magnesia. 

Instead of the method we have indicated for the 
estimation of suljohur, its proportion can be ascer- 
tained by dissolving slowly the pulverized steel in 
dilute muriatic acid and passing hydrogen through 
the solution. The gases are received in an acid 
solution of acetate of lead. If sulphur is present in 
steel, it will by this treatment be converted into 
hydrosulphuric acid, which combining with the lead 
of the acetate, produces a sulphide from which the 
weight of the sulphur is deduced. 

' And more or less iron. — Trans. 



QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY. 135 

This analysis must be conducted with extreme 
slowness; not less than eight to ten days are re- 
quired for dissolving the proper quantity of steel. 
Pig iron requires ten to fifteen days, and wrought 
iron, four. 

224. 3. Estimation of Graphitic Carbon, Silica, Lime, 
&c. — Let us take 30 to 40 grammes of the third portion 
of pulverized steel, which are treated with diluted 
hydrochloric acid in a glass balloon. By a gentle 
heat the iron is dissolved in a few hours, leaving 
dark or black flakes floating in the liquid. These 
are collected upon a filter previously weighed, 
washed, and dried at 100° centigrade. The in- 
crease of weight is noted, and represents the graphi- 
tic carbon with some silicate of iron and lime. The 
silica, iron, &c, of this mixture are estimated by 
fusing the whole with nitrate of potassa, mixed with 
twice its weight of pure carbonate of soda. The 
quantity of silica, lime, &c, being ascertained, by 
the usual method, the loss of weight indicates the 
graphitic carbon. In order to corroborate this 
result, another portion of steel is dissolved in dilute 
hydrochloric acid, and the flaky residuum is col- 
lected by filtration through the fibres of asbestos put 
in the narrow part of a funnel. After drying, flakes 
and abestos together are mixed with chromate of 
lead and oxide of copper, and treated in the usual 
way employed for destroying organic matters. 



136 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

With proper care in the experiment, the results 
obtained by the two methods must be exactly the 
same. The graphitic carbon thus estimated (and 
which we will call b for greater convenience), being 
deducted from the whole quantity of carbon found 
in the first operation by combustion, we will have 
by difference the quantity of combined carbon a. 

All the liquids are now evaporated to dryness, 
and treated again with diluted hydrochloric acid, 
which leaves behind undissolved a very small quan- 
tity of silica. This silica is collected and added to 
the silica previously obtained from the black de- 
posit. 

A small quantity of the solution is then treated 
with sulphuretted hydrogen ; and if a dark precipi- 
tate is the result, the whole is to be acted upon by 
this gas. 

If a dark precipitate is formed, it must be sepa- 
rated by filtration, and the metals it may contain are 
to be determined by the usual methods. 

Generally, however, the small precipitate by the 
action of the sulphuretted hydrogen is some sulphur 
having a milky white appearance. This is collected 
upon a filter, and some nitric acid is added to the 
solution, which is made to boil till all the iron is per- 
oxidized. 

Afterwards, with ammonia added in small quanti- 
ties, most of the iron is precipitated in the state of 
peroxide (ferric oxide). The last portions of this 



QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY. 137 

metal are separated by the neutral benzoate of am- 
monia ; x and from the weight of peroxide obtained, 
the weight of metal in the steel is deduced. 

225. After the weight of the oxide of iron has been 
taken, a portion of it might be used for discovering 
traces of chromium and alumina. For this, it is suf- 
ficient to dissolve this portion of oxide in hydro- 
chloric acid, and to precipitate by an excess of caus- 
tic potassa which will dissolve these foreign sub- 
stances, which are generally in very small quantities. 
If an excess of ammonia has not been added to the 
solution previous to the use of benzoate of ammonia, 
the precipitated iron will not contain a trace of man- 
ganese. 

226. Before separating this latter metal, the solu- 
tion and washings must be evaporated to dryness, and 
the ammonia salts expelled by calcination. After 
this treatment, the residuum has always a brown 
color, due to the presence of the oxide of manga- 
nese. It is dissolved in a few drops of hydrochloric 
acid ; some ammonia is added first, and afterwards 
some sulphide of ammonium. 

The precipitate of sulphide of manganese, after 
standing some time, and being slightly heated, is 

1 Succinate of ammonia, perfectly neutral, is generally em- 
ployed, the precipitate obtained being less bulky. — Trans. 

12* 



138 TREATISE OX STEEL. 

collected upon a filter. It may be transformed into 
sulphate of manganese, or dissolved again in hydro- 
chloric acid, precipitated in the form of carbonate, 
and after calcination is weighed in the state of red 
oxide. 

227. By ebullition the sulphide of ammonium is 
expelled from the solution from which manganese 
has been separated, and then an addition of oxalate 
of ammonia will precipitate the lime in the form of 
oxalate. This salt is calcined, and the carbonate of 
lime produced indicates the quantity of lime or of 
calcium in the analyzed steel. 

228. If it is suspected that a steel contains mag- 
nesium, the presence of this metal may be ascertained 
by adding a few drops of phosphate of soda to the 
liquors filtered from the oxalate of lime. But it 
has never yet been found in steel, in quantity large 
enough to be weighed. Only traces may be found 
in iron. The presence of magnesia is -ascertained 
only by qualitative analysis, and it may be entirely 
neglected in the quantitative analysis. 

As for the alkalies, they are found in the solution 
from which lime has been separated ; it is only 
necessary to evaporate this solution to dryness, to 
calcine and to weigh them in the state of chlorides. 
If, then, they are dissolved in a small quantity of 
water, and a few drops of bichloride of platinum are 
added, Xhe potassa may be separated and weighed. 



QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY. 139 

The chloride of sodium is found by a differential 
calculation. 1 

1 The analytical chemist may modify several of the methods 
ahove indicated, in regard to reagents, weight and size of assay 
sample, rapidity of operation, &c. 

New methods will be found in the Chemical News (American 
reprint, October and November, 1867, and April and May, 1868). 
But we do not yet know of any method for estimating the com- 
bined carbon, superior to that of combustion as in organic 
analyses. 

At all events, a correct analysis of pig iron, steel or wrought 
iron, requires time and experience. Such an analysis, without 
accuracy, is not of much value. — Trans. 



PART SECOND. 

METALLURGY OF STEEL. 



229. It results from the principles we have de- 
veloped in the first part of this work, that the manu- 
facture of steel consists in alloying iron and carbon 
in a definite proportion, thus producing a perfectly 
homogeneous alloy, whose properties are a great 
tenacity when heated, and an extreme hardness when 
hardened. 

To produce this alloy, the metallurgist has at his 
disposal : — 

1. Iron ore; 

2. Pig-metal or raw iron ; 

3. Wrought iron. 

230. With these materials, and charcoal which 
furnishes carbon, he can manufacture : 

1. Natural steel, by deoxidizing the iron ore, and 
carburizing the reduced iron ; 

2. Steel from raw-metal, by removing the graphitic 
carbon (151). 



142 TKEATISE ON STEEL. 

3. Cemented steel, by introducing carbon into 
wrought iron (169-171). 

As these three kinds of carburetted iron are not 
pure steel, and are most of them wanting in homo- 
geneousness, they are submitted to a last operation, 
producing thus: — 

4. Cast-steel, or the result of the fusion in close 
vessels of any one of the three kinds of steel we have 
just mentioned (174-176). 

231. We shall next describe three different modes 
of fabrication. 

We shall add to them the process employed in 
India, to produce a kind of cast-steel known under 
the name of Wootz; and we shall then examine 
several new processes of manufacture which attract, 
with more or less reason, the utmost attention from 
theoretical and practical metallurgists, such as the 
processes of Chenot, Bessemer, Taylor, and Uchatius. 
We shall end this second part by describing the 
working of Damascus steel and waved steel. 

I. 
Natural Steel. 

232. Natural steel, or that obtained from the iron 
ore, is made in low furnaces, having an analogy with 
certain refinery fires called Renardieres, but known 
in the Pyrenees under the name of Catalan fires or 
forges. The shape of these furnaces varies with 



NATURAL STEEL. 



143 



every country, as well as their mode of working, 
thus making as many methods, with different names, 
but whose principle is the same. Hence, it will be 
sufficient to describe here the manufacture in a 
Catalan forge, to understand the methods in use in 
Navarre, Biscay, Corsica, etc. 

233. The Catalan fire is prismatic. Its size 
depends on the quantity of blast it is possible to 
get; it increases with the power of the blowing 
machine. Too much blast in a furnace would be 
injurious to the uniformity of the mixture of ore 
with charcoal ; while a small blast, with a large 
hearth, would produce a slow and laborious fusion. 
The quality of charcoal has also some influence on 
the dimensions of the hearth; light charcoal from 
soft wood requires, for burning, a larger hearth than 
would be the case with charcoal from hard wood. 



Fig. l. 




144 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

234. However, in the same country, there is a great 
difference in the dimensions: at Gingla, the sides of 
the hearth are 0.43 by 0.59 metre, and the depth is 
0.81 metre; at Sahorre, these dimensions are 0.70 
by 0.70 metre for the sides, and 0.87 metre for the 
depth. 

235. These fires are used for the production of 
iron or steel, not according to the wants, but rather 
per chance, which, with rare exceptions, is more the 
ruling power than science or experience in these 
iron works of the Pyrenees. 

236. When working for iron, the tuyere must 
have a sharp inclination, in order to carry the blast 
directly into the fire, and to distribute it immediately 
upon the ore. When working for steel, the tuyere 
must be nearly horizontal, and in order that the 
ore which is smelting under. the charcoal should not 
be decarburized too soon, its direction should be 
towards the cinders or slags, which must be produced 
in larger quantity for steel than for iron. 

237. The projection of the tuyere over the hearth 
must vary with the size of the hearth, and the power 
of the fuel used. For a small fire and light charcoal, 
this projection is, necessarily, smaller than for a 
large fire and powerful fuel. It varies between 
0.14 and 0.16 metre. 



NATURAL STEEL. 145 

238. The angles of the hearth are rounded, thus 
producing a more or less elliptic shape. Conse- 
quently, the tuyere is somewhat turned towards the 
(Rustine) back, and thus, the blast is distributed with 
more uniformity than if the tuyere was towards the 
(Chio) front. Nevertheless, this disposition is varia- 
ble with the state of preservation of the tuyere; 
because, if it is new, the blast is projected more 
directly and in one mass; but when it is worn out, 
the blast is scattered. 

239. The ores worked for steel in the Catalan 
forges are spathic irons, rich in manganese. These 
ores are generally found all over the French and 
Spanish Pyrenees. They are roasted, and broken 
into lumps of middle size. The small pieces and 
the coarse powder are sifted and separated, thus 
forming what is called greillade. 

240. For charging the furnace, charcoal is put on 
the left side near the tuyere, upon some charcoal 
already burning. The bottom of the hearth has 
been covered with a brasque made of charcoal dust 
well beaten down. On the right side, opposite the 
tuyere, and called contrevent (against the wind), a 
kind of wall or talus is made with the ore sloping 
towards the front (laiterol), where the tap hole (chio) 
is situated. Thus, the right side is covered with 
ore, and the left side or tuyere side is charged with 
charcoal. The mass of ore is also covered with 

13 



146 TEEATISE ON STEEL. 

charcoal, on top of which a mixture of charcoal 
dust, coarsely powdered ore (greillach), and wet slag 
is beaten down. All these materials form a kind 
of arch, which is always kept covered with moist 
powdered ore, to prevent the flame escaping by any 
opening. 

241. When the charge is complete, a blast is 
given gently and cautiously first, which is very slowly 
increased. It is a full hour after the operation has 
begun, before its entire force is allowed. 

In proportion as the charcoal is consumed before 
the tuyere, the workman in charge replaces it by 
fresh charcoal, in order to prop the ore and to pre- 
vent it from tumbling down into the fire. By this 
mode of working, the ore has time to become deoxi- 
dized and ready for fusion. 

When working for iron, after one and a half or 
two hours, the slag or cinders are run out from the 
tap hole. Eaw iron will often run with them, and 
a great deal more of it would escape, if the ore 
which begins to agglomerate were not pushed 
towards the tuyere, in order to hasten its deoxidiza- 
tion. When working for steel, the cinders are not 
tapped so soon ; the carbide which is forming must 
have the time necessary for a complete reaction, by 
which it becomes the definite alloy under the pro- 
tection of slags, which prevent its entire decarburi- 
zation. 

The workmen have a habit of fattening the fire 



NATURAL STEEL. 147 

(engraisser le feu), i. e., of covering the mass of ore and 
charcoal with powdered ore. This method is very- 
proper when ductile iron is sought for ; but its defect 
is to thicken the slags and lessen their fluidity. 

At a certain moment of the operation, the work- 
man called escola, gathers the lumps of ore which 
are not entirely smelted, and helps their fusion with 
a rich slag, which must be saved for that purpose. 
Afterwards, he unites all the agglomerated pieces 
into one mass, which is, of course, very rough. 
This operation of forming the lump is called baleger 
le masse, in the Pyrenees. The asperities are re- 
moved with a crowbar (palenque), and the blast, 
from the horizontal direction it had during the 
forming of the lump, is brought to its former posi- 
tion. The fire is then much increased, in order to 
complete the fusion. 

242. This being done, the blast is stopped, the 
charcoal is removed, and the lump of iron (masse) is 
•uncovered. Immediately, all the forgemen come to 
help; one of them passes a bar through the tap 
hole under the lump ; another, standing on the front 
side of the hearth, helps to raise the metallic mass 
with a hooked bar ; while a third one grasps it be- 
tween large tongs. When out of the furnace, the 
lump of iron is carried over the floor of the forge to 
the hammer (mail), where it receives a prismatic 
form. It is afterwards divided into two parts 
(massoqnes), one of which remains on the floor of 



148 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

the forge, and is covered with burning coal, to pre- 
vent its rapid cooling and superficial deearburizing, 
while the other is shingled. 

The next work is the cleaning of the hearth, in 
order to start a new operation, during the begin- 
ning of which the cold piece of iron called massoque 
is re-heated near the tuyere. This massoque is after- 
wards divided into two parts (massoquettes), which 
are also shingled. 

243. Every smelting operation lasts from five to 
six hours, and the lump of iron obtained weighs 70 
to 150 kilogrammes; generally, the charge of the 
furnace is from 210 to 450 kilog. of ore, of which 
150 to 300 kilog. are broken lumps, and 60 to 
150 kilog. are coarse powder. The consumption of 
charcoal is nearly equal in weight to the quantity 
of ore; i. e., that for producing 100 kilog. of iron 
in lump (masse), an average of 300 kilog. of ore, 
lumps and coarse powder, and 300 kilog. of charcoal 
are required. It follows that the ore, which is gene- 
rally very rich, and contains 55 to 60 per cent, of 
pure iron, produces no more than 33 per cent. 

II. 

Steel from Raw Iron or Raw Steel. 

244. The pig metal used in the Department of 
Isere, and in the Alps, for the manufacture of steel 
from raw iron, sometimes called raw steel, is obtained 



STEEL FROM RAW IRON OR RAW STEEL. 149 

from spathic ores with charcoal. It is white; its 
grains are crystallized, quite large, and divergent, 
like those of fine metal. However, it is not much 
decarburized, because a drop of nitric acid put on 
it will produce a dark spot. 

245. The fires employed for converting pig iron 
into steel, are a great deal larger than those in use 
for refining ; they require only 6800 cubic decimetres 
of air, while over 10,000 are required for refining. 
The cause of such a difference is, that in the work- 
ing for iron, about one-third of the blast is employed 
for decarburizing the pig metal entirely ; while in 

Fig. 2. 




the conversion of pig metal into steel, only a small 

quantity of carbon is to be consumed. This ex- 

18* 



150 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

plains also why the tuyere is horizontal, instead of 
dipping the same as in an iron finery. 

246. The size of a raw-steel finery fire in the Isere, 
is one metre square and 1.50 metre deep. A sand- 
stone is used for the bottom, and the sides are built 
with fire-bricks. 

247. This mode of working requires four men; 
one head forgeman and three assistants. 

248. The hearth is filled with fine charcoal, which 
is beaten down for two or three hours. This is 
called making the brasque. In the middle of this 
carbonaceous mass a hole is dug, 0.38 to 0.40 metre 
in diameter, and 0.50 metre in depth. This having 
been done, the hearth is filled with burning coals, 
covered with breeze (fine charcoal), and the blast 
begins to play. This preliminary heating is made 
use of for reheating there some blooms of steel, 
and drawing them afterwards. 

The cinders are then taken out with a shovel, the 
cavity is cleaned, and again filled with charcoal. 
On top of this charcoal, 600 to 700 kilogrammes of 
broken pig iron are placed, care being taken that 
they should be arranged in battlement, and sup- 
ported by a crowbar. The hearth is then inclosed 
in a wall of fine charcoal, previously dampened, 
and the whole is covered with charcoal and cinders. 
The fusion must last four hours. 

During these four hours, the head forgeman has 



STEEL FROM RAW IRON OR RAW STEEL. 151 

nothing to do but to change the crowbars supporting 
the pig iron on top of the hearth, to probe the 
molten mass, and to add a little cinder and charcoal. 

The pig iron remains thus in fusion during eight 
or nine hours, protected against the blast by a molten 
mass of slags, having a thickness of 0.15 to 0.16 
metre. The melting aud molecular arrangement of 
the elements is made quietly under the influence of 
a great heat. The head founder watches the opera- 
tion attentively; increases the fluidity of the slags, 
when necessary, with some powdered quartz ; pre- 
vents the thickening of the metal, by increasing the 
blast; or diminishes it, to produce thickening when 
the proper time has come. 

The viscosity of the mass indicates that it has 
become steel. This is the moment for presenting 
the lumps to the direct blast of the tuyere, in order 
to burn the excess of dissolved carbon. When this 
refining has been rapidly done, an assistant takes 
one ball with the iron tongs, while another workman 
squeezes it with a sledge hammer. This ball, or 
bloom, is then carried to the tilt-hammer, where it 
is shingled and forged into a prismatic shape, of 
which all the faces are drawn flat. 

249. Twenty to twenty-one such tilted blooms 
(massiaiix) are thus made. 

The consumption for 1000 kilog. of pig metal is 
3500 to 4000 kilog. of charcoal. The products are — 
650 kilog. of steel. 
150 " of iron. 



152 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

In some localities natural steel is manufactured by 
another method. 

250. The pig iron is refined in a special fire, 
where it is partially decarburized ; after that, it is 
taken out in pieces about 0.03 to 0.04 metre thick. 
This done, a brasque is put into the hearth, which has 
the ordinary dimensions of a finery fire — about 0.55 
to 0.60 metre. The tap-hole remains. 

25 to 30 kilog. of pig iron are put upon the hearth, 
and the fusion quickly occurs. This operation re- 
quires about one hour and a quarter; during this 
time, the blooms of the previous operation are re- 
heated, forged into bars, and immediately hardened. 
When the pig iron is smelted, it is left to stand, in 
order to allow the change of texture of the molecu- 
lar elements to take place. The refining is conducted 
in the way we have indicated, and the blooms are 
taken out of the fire, and drawn the same as before. 

In this operation, only a forger and his assistant 
are required, and they will manufacture, in twelve 
hours, 150 to 175 kilog. of steel. For 1000 kilog. of 
steel, the consumption is 1600 kilog. of pig metal, 
and nearly 4 bannes 1 of charcoal. 

251. In Westphalia and in Silesia, the manufacture 
of steel differs from that in France; but the same 

1 A banne is a load of charcoal variable with the locality and 
the nature of charcoal. We do not know what is its value in 
weight or measure. — Translator. 



STEEL FROM RAW IRON OR RAW STEEL. 153 

principles will apply to all the methods for produc- 
ing natural steel. A rapid fusion and a slow refin- 
ing, such are the directions followed everywhere, 
and the theory accords with experience. 

In these countries pig iron is not previously 
refined. Gray metal is often employed; but then, 
the blast must be rapid and directed downwards, 
whilst white metal requires a horizontal blast. With 
gray metal, the first thing to be done is to destroy 
the graphitic or uncombined carbon ; afterwards, 
more homogeneity is to be given to the remaining 
carbide. This is done by constantly stirring the 
molten metal, and thus preserving its fluidity; by 
this working, the carbon is thoroughly distributed 
in the liquid mass which has been kept covered with 
slags. For a thorough distribution of carbon, the 
metals rich in manganese are very advantageous. 
Therefore they are in great demand, and, as they are 
generally perfectly homogeneous, they produce the 
best raw steel. 

In Westphalia and in Silesia, small plates of pig 
metal are put into the hearth, and are smelted with a 
small quantity of rich slags which are the first to 
fall, and thus cover the bottom which is made of a 
refractory sandstone. Other pieces of pig metal are 
put upon the recess plate, in order to profit by the 
heat produced ; thence they are, one after the other, 
put vertically into the fire near the right side (the side 
facing the tuyere). They are replaced by the blooms 
of the previous operation, which compress the fine 



151 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

charcoal and prevent its dispersion. From this place, 
the blooms are brought nearer the fire, underneath 
the tuyere, where they are sufficiently heated to be 
drawn into bars. 

Soon, the first piece of metal is seen to soften, 
sink down by degrees, and be liquefied. Its fusion 
is hastened, if desired, by bringing it nearer the 
tuyere, which may be inclined, if necessary. The 
motion of the blowing machine is increased, in order 
to produce a rapid blast, until perfect liquidity is 
produced. At this point, the blast must be decreased ; 
some hammer scales are thrown upon the fire, and 
the mass is stirred until it again becomes pasty. 

Afterwards, a second piece of floss, already red 
hot, is put vertically into the fire, and the blast is 
once more increased. This second piece, which 
weighs generally 15 kilog. (the weight of the first 
was only 12 kilog.) will, by smelting, render the 
pasty mass liquid again. If it appears that the mass 
has retained too much of the nature of raw metal, a 
small quantity of rich slag is added ; however, this 
is to be avoided as much as possible. The blast is 
diminished as soon as the metal is liquid, which is 
stirred until a pasty consistence is obtained ; but it 
is to be feared that the metallic paste will become 
too hard by refining, and will stick to the bottom of 
the hearth. 

The third piece of plate, weighing 20 to 25 kilog., 
is to be treated the same as the preceding ones. 
The whole mass recovers its liquidity ; some rich 



STEEL FROM RAW IRON OR RAW STEEL. 155 

oxides are thrown into it while it is being vigorously 
stirred, and the action of the blowing machine is 
slightly slackened. If it is then seen that the metal 
sticks to the bottom, that it is becoming malleable, 
and that it produces too fluid slags, a very rapid 
blast is given, and the mass is stirred without inter- 
ruption, in order to produce a brisk ebullition. 
When the stirring has been going on for some time, 
the mass falls down, and the metal is separated in 
the form of a cake ; its working is ended only when 
it is no longer possible to drive a crowbar into it. 

The fourth piece of pig iron, weighing about 15 
kilog., is then put in the fire towards the centre of 
the metallic cake. This latter, being corroded by 
the raw metal only at its centre, is bored through- 
out, while the edges remain unacted upon. The 
blast, which is very rapid during the fusion, is to 
be moderated afterwards. The stirring is renewed, 
and continues until the new boil has ceased, and 
the mass has fallen. The fifth piece of raw iron 
is treated in the same way ; often a sixth one is 
liquefied. During the last stirring, the blast must 
always be the strongest; however, the rapidity of 
the blast should be reduced if a hole is seen in the 
centre of the lump. 

In order to prevent the formation of a layer of 
iron upon the lump of steel, the blast must be 
stopped at the proper time. This moment is ascer- 
tained, either by the consistency of the mass, or by 
the formation of slags sticking to the crowbar. 



156 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

As soon as the blowing machine is stopped, the 
charcoal is removed, the lump is uncovered and left 
to cool awhile, in order that none of its fragments 
may be.detached. Afterwards, with a sledge ham- 
mer, a crowbar passing through the tap-hole is 
forced into the hearth, and helps to raise the lump 
which sticks strongly to the sides. This lump is 
cut into six, seven, or eight blooms, having a pyra- 
midal shape, the apex of which is towards the centre, 
because the steel is always a little harder towards 
the extremities. 

The blooms of the previous operation are drawn 
out during the fusion. After being forged into 
square bars with sides equal to 32 millimetres, they 
are delivered to the refiners. But, as these bars 
must be reduced in thickness, it would be better to 
forge them into flat bars. This would be economy, 
and the steel would be improved. 

252. The consumption of charcoal is very great; 
sometimes it runs up to 2.64 cubic metres for 100 
kilog. of steel. The waste varies according to the 
quality of the raw metal, and the skill of the work- 
men. It will often be thought a satisfactory result 
when three parts of pig iron produce two parts of 
steel. If the raw metal is better, seven parts will 
give five of steel; and sometimes, when its quality 
is very superior, four parts of it will be sufficient for 
three parts of raw steel. Therefore, 1000 kilog. of 



STEEL FROM RAW IRON OR RAW STEEL. 157 

steel are produced by 1300 to 1500 kilog. of pig 
metal and 200 hectolitres of charcoal. 

Every fire is attended to by a furnace man, a head 
forger and an assistant, because the working is not 
regular. 

In some steel works, old iron is added to the molten 
mass, after the fusion of the fourth piece. The quan- 
tity of old iron is about one third of the weight of 
the bloom. 

253. In the principality of Siegen, in Styria, in 
Carinthia, in Carniole, and in the Tyrol, different pro- 
cesses are in use. The steel works of Siegen refine 
the pig iron just as it comes from the blast furnace. 

In Styria, the gray metal is converted first into 
iron, by the method of double fusion in use in that 
country. With white metal, the access of air is 
prevented as soon as the metal becomes lumpy. The 
Styrian steel, known under the name of scythe steel, 
is sometimes refined and forged into small bars. It 
is then called mock. The mock is milder than the 
stuck stahlor German steel. This is made in ordinary 
brasqued fires ; the pig iron is put upon the brasque 
strongly beaten down, and is kept, the same as the 
blooms, with iron tongs, on the side opposite the 
tuyere. With a feeble blast the metal is smelted 
slowly, and some rich cinder is added to it. The 
fusion is slow in the Styrian method, and rapid in 
the German process. Therefore, in the one case, pig 
14 



158 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

iron is refined by standing, and in the other, by work- 
ing. 

The steels manufactured for certain kinds of arms, 
swords, &c, and known under the name of fine Bre- 
zian, ordinary Brezian, Roman steel, require a great 
deal more care. The raw metal is first liquefied, and 
refined by stirring ; but the lump is cut into several 
blooms which are reheated in a peculiar furnace 
and drawn afterward. The steel for arms is drawn 
into bars 0.025 to 0.030 metre thick ; and the bre- 
zian into bars 0.010 to 0.015 metre thick. 

In the principality of Siegen, the name of edelstahl 
is given to a hard and brittle steel manufactured at 
Mussen, by a process similar to that used in the north 
of Germany ; the only difference is that white metal 
from spathic ores is employed, which, of course, 
shortens the length of the operation. Besides, 
hammer scales are added, and the cinders are tapped 
only at the moment of boiling. The rnittel kaehr is 
an edelstahl, but not so brittle. 

. III. 

Puddled Steel. 

254. The puddling furnace for steel is somewhat 
different from the furnace for iron ; the bed is not so 
large, but deeper ; the sides are generally built with 
hollow cast plates, through which cold air or water 
is made to circulate, in order to prevent the rapid 
deterioration of these plates. 



PUDDLED STEEL. 
Fig. 3. 



159 




255. The raw iron employed is gray or white ; 
that produced by spathic ores with charcoal being 
preferred. 

256. The charge introduced into the furnace is 
from 140 to 150 kilog. of pig metal. A strong and 
rapid heat is produced, in order to prevent the de- 
carburization of the surface; but as soon as fusion 
begins, the fire is lowered, and the heat is regulated 
with the damper. 

This is the time to add a slag or cinder, which must 
cover the molten metal, which will remain liquid at 
a moderate heat, and at the same time, during the 
stirring, will somewhat decarburize the pig metal by 
burning the excess of carbon. The hammer or mill 
scales, and the cinders from reheating furnaces are 
convenient for this purpose. 

When the raw metal is entirely smelted, the pud- 



160 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

dling process proper begins, and a flux made of per- 
oxide of manganese, common salt, and dry clay is 
added. 1 This flux is mixed with the metal, and the 
whole is thoroughly stirred, mixed, and puddled in 
every direction. After a few minutes of working, 
the damper is raised, and a new charge of 20 kilog. 
of pig metal is put into the furnace, upon a bed of 
cinders, and near the fire bridge. This pig metal is 
then allowed to liquefy. 

The mass remaining in the bed quickly boils, and 
the decarburization is heralded by jets of small, blue 
flame. The new metal, which had remained near the 
fire bridge, is then mixed with the boiling mass, which 
soon swells and raises. Small metallic grains are 
seen finding their way through the cinders, and 
indicate that the time for the puddling proper has 
come. 

The damper is closed about three-fourths, and care 
is taken that during the whole operation the tempera- 
ture should not rise above cherry red, or, at most, 
above the welding heat necessary for tilted steel. 

The mass is then moved and stirred backwards 
and forwards under the covering layer of cinders. 
These signs of decarburization, i. e., the small jets 
of blue flame of carbonic oxide, disappear ; the small 
grains grow in number, become soft, and form a 
viscous mass, the temperature of which is cherry red. 

1 Some other ingredients have been proposed, such as chloride 
of calcium, nitrate of soda, &c. — Trans. 



PUDDLED STEEL. 161 

This is the time for increasing the fire, in order 
to maintain a constant heat during the operation. 
Next, the damper is completely closed ; the metallic 
mass is entirely covered with the cinders, and under- 
goes the reaction necessary to the formation of steel, 
which reaction is facilitated by the presence of man- 
ganese. At times, the same as when puddling iron, 
a ball is formed underneath the cinders, and is taken 
out to the hammer. Bars, plates, rails, etc., are 
thus manufactured; and so on, until the furnace is 
emptied. 

257. At the Lohe Works, in Germany, the charge 
is 164 kilog. Six heats are made in twelve hours. 
Every charge produces 7 to 8 blooms, weighing 
each 18 to 19 kilog. on an average. 

The staff is made of fourteen persons: — 

2 foremen. 

4 puddlers. 

2 hammermen. 

1 man for the re-heating furnace. 

5 assistants and helpers. 

14 

The waste of pig metal is '20 per cent.; 9 per cent, 
during puddling, 11 per cent, during re-heating. 

1000 kilog. of steel require — 

1.773 kilog. of mineral coal for puddling. 
.342 " " " for re-heating. 

2.115 kilogrammes. 

14* 



162 TREATISE ON STEEL.s 

IV. 

Steel of Cementation. 

258. The true term should be iron of cementation, 
because the product, obtained by the process we 
are about to describe, is far from being steel. It is 
nothing more than an iron which has been prepared 
to be transformed into steel, by introducing into its 
softened, but not fused molecules, atoms of carbon, 
which are suspended first, and afterwards dissolved 
in it. 

259. Iron and carbon have a great tendency to 
unite, even when cold. Iron, left for some time in 
a mass of charcoal dust, will become hardened, and, 
by and by, may be transformed into steely iron, 
which is a kind of iron much sought for in certain 
works. Our iron-masters, who lose every year ten 
per cent, of their charcoal by turning to dust under 
their sheds, would do well to take notice of this 
phenomenon for producing a new kind of iron, 
which would find a ready market. 

260. This has happened to two good men of 
Maine-et-Loire ; one was an iron-master, the other 
an iron-dealer, both connected in business, with the 
same amount of intellect, and acting with that blind 
faith which characterizes the elect. The iron- mer- 
chant having bought from the iron-master a small 
quantity of bar iron, an idea came to his mind that 



STEEL OF CEMENTATION. 163 

this iron would be improved if it was re-heated. The 
iron master was induced to do the extra work, for 
which he was paid one franc the 100 kilog. The 
manufacturer, for the sake of economy, had the iron 
re-heated in charcoal dust of no value to him, the 
good man not suspecting that he was making a 
true cementation. As the expenses were covered 
by the extra price and the increase of weight, the 
operation was made thus: in a furnace out of use, a 
first layer of charcoal dust was made, and covered 
with a layer of iron, until the alternate layers of 
charcoal and iron had reached a certain height. 
Fire was then applied, and the whole allowed to 
burn entirely away. The good iron-master had no 
idea that he was making steel of cementation, and 
the worthy merchant was no more cognizant of the 
fact, although he did charge high prices to the black- 
smiths, his clients, for this so-called refined iron. 
Very likely he would have remained in that igno- 
rance, had not the author of this book revealed the 
mystery by breaking one of the bars before him. 
Yet, the revealer is not very certain that the candid 
merchant has been convinced. 

261. The name of cementation is given to the ope- 
ration by which two solid substances may be alloyed 
and dissolved into each other, without either of them 
being in a state of complete fusion. 

In the cementation, iron and carbon are put in 
contact under a strong heat; but neither is melted. 



161 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 



We do not know how this penetration takes place ; 
because, if there is solution, one at least of the two 
substances must be in the liquid state; and, in this 
case, it is difficult to believe that iron has acquired 
any fluidity. 1 

Fig. 4. 




1 Several explanations of a more or less speculative charac- 
ter have been given, in which the action of nitrogen plays a 
great part. Mr. Caron believes that nitrogen acts like a carrier, 
a kind of stevedore, in carrying molecules of carbon into the 
iron. 

M. Fremy asserts, that without nitrogen, cementation could 
not take place. 

There is always some air, and consequently nitrogen, in the 
charcoal used, and in the gases from the Jireplace. — Trans. 



STEEL OF CEMENTATION. 165 

262. The furnace employed for the manufacture of 
steel of cementation is a reverberatory furnace with 
a peculiar construction. Its length is about five 
metres ; the fireplace is in the middle, and occupies 
the whole length, in order to render the heat uni- 
form everywhere. Above the fireplace are built 
the flues, which sustain the cementing chests, and 
allow a free and equal passage for the flame. Upon 
these flues are two chests occupying the whole 
length of the furnace. 

A free space is left for the passage of the flame 
around the two chests, which are built of large fire- 
bricks. Above, is an arch, which has the effect of 
concentrating the heat upon the chests. In the 
upper part of the arch, one opening is left for the 
exit of the smoke and the draft; another conical 
stack envelops the whole apparatus. 

The furnace in use at Sheffield, and employed in 
some French steel works, differs slightly from the 
one we have just described; the opening left on the 
top of the arch for the exit of the smoke is replaced 
by two small chimneys built at each end of the fur- 
nace, one on the right side, the other on the left. 
The draft is more equal, and the heat is more con- 
centrated under the arch ; this disposition is there- 
fore more advantageous. 

263. The dimensions of the chests at Sheffield 
vary between eight and fifteen feet (2.44 to 4.57 



166 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

metres) for the length, and between two and three 
feet (0.60 to 0.90 metre) for the width, in the clear. 

The conical stack which surrounds them is 30 or 
40 feet high (12 to 15 metres). The operation lasts 
six to eight days. 

It is easy to understand that the dimensions of 
such a furnace are infinitely variable, according to 
the pieces which are to be cemented. Here are, 
however, the dimensions used in some works : the 
boxes are 4.25 metres in length, 0.60 to 0.90 metre 
in width and depth. 

264. The iron which is to be converted into steel 
is generally a flat iron 6 millimetres thick. 1 The 
bars are cut in lengths of 3.90 to 4.00 metres, 
if they are to be placed in chests of 4.25 metres in 
length, in order to leave the room necessary for the 
expansion ; otherwise, if the bars were to touch the 
sides of the chests, they would certainly shove out 
during the dilatation. To have everything ready in 
the chests, a layer of charcoal dust 0.07 metre thick 
is spread over the bottom ; the bars of iron are laid 
upon this layer with a space between them ; after- 
wards, another layer of charcoal dust 0.05 metre 
thick is added, another row of bars, and so on, until 
the chest is filled. Care has been taken that the 
space (0.07 metre) between the sides and the iron is 

1 Thicker iron is also used. — Trans. 



STEEL OF CEMENTATION. 167 

filled with charcoal. The whole is covered with a 
layer of the same thickness as that of the bottom. 

As it is important that the iron should be ex- 
cluded as much as possible from contact with the 
oxygen of the air, the chests are covered with bricks 
hermetically luted. However, this method is un- 
satisfactory, because there are always some empty 
spaces in the chests, and the atmospheric air fills 
these spaces. In some works, the last layer of 
charcoal is covered with fine sand previously dried, 
and no other covering is employed. The sand fol- 
lows the settling down, and steadily preserves the 
iron from contact with the air carried by the draft, 
and, at the same time, allows the vapors and carbonic 
gases to escape freely from the chest. 

By the arrangement of iron and charcoal in a 
chest 0.60 metre high, we have : — 

1 first layer of charcoal . . . .0.07 metre. 
8 intermediate layers of charcoal . . 0.40 " 

10 layers of iron 0.06 " 

1 upper layer of charcoal . . . 0.07 " 

Height of the chest . . . . 0.60 " 

In the sides of the chests, small apertures are some- 
times left, through which trial bars may be examined, 
in order to know r if the operation is regular, and 
how it progresses. These trial bars are small bars 
or heavy iron wire; they are placed at different 
heights in the chests, and by them, it is possible to 
judge the degree of cementation of the remaining 
iron. 



168 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

265. The apparatus being thus prepared, fire is 
begun in the furnace, first slowly, and afterwards 
increased gradually to its maximum, which is kept 
during the whole operation. 

This operation lasts generally eight days, for 
furnaces in which fourteen tons of steel are treated, 
at once. 

When it is supposed that carbon has penetrated 
through the centre of the iron bars the most re- 
mote from the fire, the cementation is finished. 
After cooling, the charge is removed, and the chests 
are ready for another operation. 

The iron which has undergone this treatment, has 
increased in weight from 0.005 to 0.0083. When 
taken out of the chests it is bloated in many places, 
and bursted in some others. These bloats, or rather 
these blisters, are the cause of its name blistered steel. 

This steel requires to be reheated and hammered 
or laminated before it is sold ; it is then called tilted 
steel or drawn steel. The preference is given, with 
reason, to the hammered or tilted kind, although it 
does not present so good an appearance as the other. 

266. Any kind of furnace is suitable for making 
steel of cementation ; the ordinary reverberatory 
furnace will answer perfectly well for this manufac- 
ture, provided that the chests are properly built, and 
that the flame plays all around them. 

At present, large furnaces are constructed for 
cementing pieces of forged iron of large size, such 



CAST STEEL. 169 

as rails, wheel tires, anvils, etc. In this fabrication, 
the object sought for is only the cementation of a 
small portion of these pieces; therefore, the cementa- 
tion is ended as soon as it is thought that the car- 
burization has penetrated deeply enough. The de- 
gree of cementation is also proportioned to the vari- 
ous uses of these pieces. Two advantages are thus 
obtained : one is a partial acieration (cementation) of 
the piece ; the other is an intimate union of metals 
having a different density. 1 



Cast Steel. 

267. Natural steel, raw steel, puddled steel, 
cemented steel, and all those produced by the Bes- 
semer, Uchatius, Taylor, and other processes, have 
little homogeneousness, and are the result of a solu- 
tion of a greater or less quantity of carbon in the 
definite alloy. 

In order to reduce these mixtures to a definite 
alloy or steel, the carbon must undergo an operation 
by which its quantity is regulated. This will be 
effected by allowing the metal to rest some time in 
a perfectly fluid state, at the bottom of the crucible, 

1 It has been said that iron bars holding sulphur, may get rid 
of this impurity- by the cementation process. In this case, a 
bisulphide of carbon would be formed, and expelled on account 
of its great volatility. We do not know if experiments have 
been made in confirmation. If true, a good use would be found 
for iron bars whose main impurity is sulphur. — Trans. 

15 



170 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

at a high temperature, and out of contact with the 



air. 



268. Therefore, the crucibles or "pots" which 
receive the imperfect steel to be smelted, must be 
able to resist a very high temperature, and that for 
a certain length of time. They are the most import- 
ant tools of the steel manufacturer, whose profes- 
sion does not require a great scientific knowledge. 

However, the construction aud the moulding of the 
crucibles or pots has been, until now, left to the 
rule of thumb and to the convenience of workmen ; 
the proprietors of furnaces, out of good-will, have 
been dependent on ignorant moulders for what forms 
over half the expense of their industry. In this 
respect, no metallurgic district is so far behind, as 
St. Etienne and its neighborhood, where, however, 
is to be found more scientific knowledge than in 
any other part of the world. 

Lamenting this state of things, I thought it would 
be useful to describe minutely the manufacture of 
crucibles or "pots;" the more so, as such description 
is not to be found in works of this kind, and has 
been neglected, as if it were of no moment. 

269. The crucibles must be made of materials as 
refractory as possible, according to the place of 
manufacture, and the price of clay. The cost of 
fabrication will be the guide on this subject. 



CAST STEEL. 171 

270. The refractory clays vary greatly, and are dis- 
tributed everywhere; there are few countries where 
they cannot be found. The geological nature of the 
ground will often point out the quality of the clay. 

All silicates with a basis of alumina are adapted 
to the manufacture of refractory materials. But it 
is very important that they should not contain po- 
tassa, soda, lime, alkalies, or metallic oxides, at least 
in notable quantity. 

In the primeval rocks, amid the debris of gneiss, 
deposits of kaolin occur which is highly refractory. 

In the rocks of transition, many kinds of suitable 
silicate of alumina are found. Often, these rocks 
contain deposits of graphite which, when abundant, 
is the best refractory material in use. Such silicates 
occur also in the secondary rocks; but it would be 
useless to search for them in the upper formations. 
Indeed the clay of tertiary rocks holding lime is 
useless, on this account, for our wants. 

The refractory clays generally contain 50 per 
cent, of silica, 33 of alumina, and the balance water. 
The presence of alkalies or metallic oxides would 
injure their quality. 

271. Many earths may be variously mixed, thus 
acquiring refractory qualities. One might unite a 
very white river sand with a sufficient proportion of 
alumina, 1 to give it some cohesion and resistance. 

1 By alumina the author certainly means "clay" or silicate 
of alumina. — Translator. 



172 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

One-fourth of white or slightly blue alumina and 
three-fourths of ground white sand give an excellent 
paste, which well resists the fire. 

The English fire-bricks are made the same, only 
the sand of the mixture is fine and has not been 
ground. Coming out of the kilns, they have a slight 
pink color, and their cohesion is so feeble, that the 
edges will easily crumble under the fingers. How- 
ever, they are justly celebrated for the building of 
furnaces. 

Nevertheless, it rarely happens that the pots for 
smelting steel will resist during a great number of 
operations : being put in close contact with the fuel, 
the ashes, carried away by the draft, will stick to 
their outer surface, and will cause a rapid vitrification. 

The clays which have been chosen according to 
the above indications, must undergo several opera- 
tions before moulding. 

It will be good to leave them exposed to the air 
and rain for a certain length of time; water will 
wash out a large portion of the iron oxides, which 
they always contain in a greater or less quantity. 

When the clays are to be used, they must be 
ground, sifted as fine as possible, and washed with 
great care. Afterwards, they are mixed, pressed, 
drawn, and corrugated until they have acquired the 
proper plasticity. When they are firm enough to 
be moulded, the workman kneads them again with 
a pestle or a mallet, and forms lumps large enough for 
the size of crucibles. Care must be taken that these 



CAST STEEL. 



ITS 



Jumps should be a little more than what is necessary, 
but never less; because an addition of clay, when 
making the pot, would destroy its solidity. 



272. The moulds used for makingthe smelting pots 
for steel, are of brass; cast iron would be too heavy, 
and iron too expensive. The 
annexed figure shows their form. 
Their size varies with the quan- 
tity of steel to smelt. Generally 
the depth is 0.90 metre, the dia- 
meter in the clear 0.16 metre, 
and the thickness 0.02 metre for 
the sides, and 0.03 metre for the 
bottom ; they have two projecting 
handles for lifting. The bottom, 
which is concave, is perforated 
with a hole of about 0.05 metre 
diameter, and receives a movable 
bottom perforated with a hole 
0.02 to 0.025 metre diameter. 
This movable bottom has a convex surface, which 
corresponds as nearly as possible with the bottom of 
the mould, and a flat surface upon which the pot 
rests. 

The mould stands firmly in a hole made in the 
floor, and room is left to allow the workman to 
reach the handles. In order to give more solidity 
and correctness, the bottom and sides of the hole are 
lined with strong pieces of wood. At the bottom is 

15* 




174 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 



also a perforation of 0.02 to 0.025 metre bore, which 
corresponds exactly to that of the movable bottom. 
It is used for passing the centre spindle of the plugs. 
The mould thus prepared is smeared with oil, and 
the workman throws into it a cylindrical lump of 
clay, which he presses firmly with a kind of pestle 
(see figure 6). Afterwards, a centring board made 
of wood, lined with iron, and with a hole equal to 
that of the movable bottom, is inserted into the 
mould. Through the hole of this centring board a 

Fig. 6. 




spindle of iron is passed and pressed downwards, 
until it goes, through the clay and the movable bot- 



CAST STEEL. 



175 



torn, as far as the hole bored in the basis which sup- 
ports the moulds. 

When the spindle and the centring board are 
withdrawn, the crucible is centred. The workman 
then takes a first plug, well oiled, and adjusts it to 
the spindle which rests in the hole previously made. 
With a mallet, beginning with gentle blows first, 
and heavy ones afterwards, he drives the entire plug 
down into the mould. 

The plugs are made of wood with a mounting of 
iron at the top. The iron spindle is round and 
pointed at the lower part, round and with a head at 
the upper one, but square where it passes through 

Fig. 7. 




the wood. Near the head, a hole is bored, through 
which a pin is inserted, which allows the workman 
to give a screwing motion to the plug. The clay 
becomes loosened, first from the mould, and soon 



176 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 



after from the plug ; the workman then takes another 
oiled ping, which differs from the former only by 
being longer (0.70 metre.) 

This new plug is driven in until its upper part is 
level with the top of the mould, and is withdrawn. 
Part of the clay having risen 0.10 metre above the 
mould, the workman gives it a truncated conical 
form, by means of two tin-plate moulds. But, pre- 
vious to this, the hole left at the bottom of the 
crucible is scraped with a tool here represented, in 

Fig. 8. 





order to extract all the clay which has been impreg- 
nated with the oil used for smearing the spindle and 
the plug. Next, a small lump of clay, placed at the 
end of a stick, is pressed into the opening, and the 



CAST STEEL, 



177 



whole firmly united with another piece of wood, 
similar in shape to the bottom of the crucible. 

The pot, with the bottom hole closed, and the top 
bent as we have said, has the appearance shown in 
the next figure. The next operation is to extract it 
from the mould. To do this, the workman takes the 
mould and carries it to another hole dug in the floor, 
in the centre of which is a vertical rod of iron, termi- 
nated by a flat head of 0.05 metre diameter. This 

Fig. 9. 




head passes through an aperture left at the bottom 
of the mould, and raises the movable bottom with 
the pot on top, while the mould is lowered down the 
floor hole. The workman then takes the pot, pulling 
gently to free it from any of the clay which has got 
into the centre hole, and carries it to the board, 
where it is left to dry awhile in the air. 



178 TREATISE ON" STEEL. 

273. The drying is finished in a drying-room, 
where the temperature is kept at about 30° C. (86° 
F.), and lasts several days, until all moisture is ex- 
pelled. When the pots are to be used, they are put 
into the smelting furnace, where the temperature is 
increased gradually up to a cherry-red heat; at this 
point, they are ready to receive a charge. 

274. The annealing of the pots presents great diffi- 
culties, and requires a great deal of care : the fire 
must be regular ; a sudden increase will make them 
crack; once properly heated, they will easily bear 
the changes of heat and cold to which they are sub- 
jected. Plumbago crucibles, particularly, after a 
powerful heating, may be dipped into water without 
being injured. 

275. In many works, the upper part of the cruci- 
bles is straight, without the conical form adopted by 
others. Their manufacture is rather simplified; one 
plug will be sufficient for the moulding; thus, three 
tools and three manipulations are dispensed with. 
However, the conical form has some advantages, as 
a greater facility in covering and uncovering during 
the fusion, mostly when several pots are put in one 
furnace. 

276. In the place where the pots are moulded, and 
with the same clay, small flat disks are made, to be 
used as stands and lids for the pots, with which they 



CAST STEEL. 179 

are dried and burnt. These stands or supports for 
the crucible protect its bottom, and, at the same time, 
raise it to where the fire is the most powerful. 

277. In a day of ten hours' work, a workman can 
make thirty pots, preparing the clay besides. In 
some steel works, where improved methods are in 
use, as many as six successive fusions are performed 
in the same pot. 

Many more might be effected in plumbago cruci- 
bles ; but their cost is greater and the materials are 
difficult to obtain. 

278. Graphite or plumbago is a carbide of iron 
very rich in carbon; its two principal characters are 
to leave a black streak on paper, and to be infusible. 

Graphite occurs in the crystalline rocks, where it 
forms veins, or irregular pockets, like chaplets. At 
Borrowdale the pockets are somewhat considerable ; 
at Cabo-de-Penas, in Asturia, the veins are of a small 
depth. It occurs also at Pontivy, in Brittany ; at 
Marbella, in Andalusia ; in Bavaria, Siberia, America, 
at the Cape of Good Hope, &c. 

279. The graphite employed in the manufacture 
of pencils contains sometimes as much as 96 per 
cent, of carbon ; as, for instance, the Borrowdale 
graphite. At Sheffield, the graphite in use is pro- 
perly a refractory clay with a small percentage of 
plumbago, scarcely 9 per cent. However, some of 



180 



TKEATISE ON STEEL. 



these graphites may be mixed with over one-half of 
silicate of alumina (clay), and resist well the most 
ardent fire, during fifteen successive charges of 
enamels with a basis of lead. 

280. The furnaces employed for the fusion of steel 
are similar to those used in brass foundries, or in 
laboratories; they are air furnaces, made with a 
rectangular hearth having at the bottom a grate, 
upon which rest the crucible and the fuel. 

281. These small furnaces are 0.50 metre long, 
0.35 to 0.40 metre wide, and 1 metre deep above 



Fig. 10. 




CAST STEEL. 181 

the grate. 1 On top is a movable cover, which 
allows the putting in of the crucibles, the fuel, the 
charge, and, at the same time, enables the workman 
to see how the operation is progressing. At the 
upper part of the wall side is a flue communicating 
with the chimney or stack, which produces the draft. 
Underneath the grate, and in front, is an opening 
for the access of air and the reception of ashes. 

Such is the disposition of casting furnaces in many 
steel works. In England, their construction has been 
slightly modified, in order to secure more facility in 
the working. 

282. The Sheffield furnaces are made on the same 
principle; but the floor of the workshop is level 
with the top of the furnace, and the covers are fixed 
by hinges to the wall at the back. A chain, with a 
counterweight, passes into a pulley-block fixed in the 
ceiling, and the other end is attached to the cover, 
which may be thus kept open, when wanted. 

Access to the ash-pits is by the under floor or 
cellar. These small furnaces are built contiguously 
to each other. A horizontal flue is used for the 
draft, and is connected with a central stack which 
does not require to be higher than 6 or 7 metres. 

Each furnace receives two crucibles which are put 
upon the stands already mentioned. Burning coals 
are added, and the temperature is gradually increased 

1 These dimensions are very variable. — Trans. 

16 



182 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

by small additions of fuel, until the pots are red. 
The charge of steel of cementation is then put in. 

283. Generally, in France, the pieces of natural 
steel or of cemented steel are thrown into the pots; 
this might take corners off, or even break the bottom. 
At Sheffield, a long sheet iron funnel is introduced 
into the pots, and Ihe pieces of steel to be melted 
are thrown into it. The use of this charger is a good 
idea, which we recommend to our countrymen. 

284. The fuel used at the beginning is pit coal ; 
coke is afterwards employed in pieces as large as the 
first. The coke must be very dense and compact; 
that made in furnaces is better than that made in the 
open air. A very dense and compact coke will last 
longer, and will not necessitate the addition of a 
fresh quantity during the operation. Indeed, good 
fuel and in sufficient quantity, will last long enough 
for a complete fusion. The addition of new fuel 
might be injurious to the pots, and it would be diffi- 
cult to spread it equally ; the fusion might thus be- 
irregular. 

Some manufacturers, instead of coke, use pit coal, 
the flame of which surrounds the casting pots. The 
furnace is then different, and has the appearance of 
a reverberatory furnace with a fireplace for the fuel, 
which is no longer in contact with the pots. It 
would be really advantageous to employ pit coal, 
which will produce 5000 units of heat instead of 



CAST STEEL. 



183 



4900 for coke, as we have shown (49) ; but the diffi- 
culty, until now, seems to have been in combining a 
good draft with a complete surrounding of the cruci- 
bles by a powerful and constant flame. Experiments 
made on a large scale at St. Etienne and at Cham- 
bon, had to be abandoned. 1 



Fig. 11. 



285. The steel of cementation, broken into small 
pieces, is introduced into the pots through the fun- 
nel or " charger" here represented. This charger is 
so constructed that it will go into the crucible, which 
will be thus protected against breaking by the pieces 
of steel thrown into it. When the charge is made, 
the pot is covered with a lid, 
the necessary quantity of fresh 
fuel is added, and the process 
is allowed to go on until the 
steel is completely fused, which 
takes place after a length of 
time learned by practice. 

However, the length of the 
operation varies with the size 
of the crucibles; in some Eng- 
lish works it is done in two 
hours; in some, six hours are 
required; in others, three hours 
only are necessary. 

It being important that atmospheric air should 
not penetrate into the pots, they are properly 




1 Siemen's gas furnaces are well spoken of. — Trans. 



184 tkeat.se on steel. 

covered. For this purpose, the top of the pot has 
been ground over a flat stone, so that the lid or 
cover fits it exactly. In many steel works, the clay 
for the lids is not very refractory, in order that? 
under the intense heat, it may become somewhat 
vitrified and adhere to the top of the pots, thus com- 
pletely preventing the entrance of air. 

During the operation, the workman watches the 
fire continually, so as to add fuel if that in the fur- 
nace is sinking; but this rarely occurs, if the fuel 
has been broken into pieces about the size of an egg. 
Sinking generally takes place when the pieces are 
of unequal size. When it is thought the operation 
is complete, the furnace is uncovered and left open 
for a few minutes, till the lids of the pots have cooled 
somewhat, that they may be easily removed. By 
waiting too long, they would harden so as to make 
it difficult to separate them ; it is sufficient if they 
have become hard enough to resist the tool. The 
workman then takes hold of the uncovered pot with 
the lifting tongs, and removes it from the furnace. 

A small quantity of slag, which swims on top of 
the molten steel, is withdrawn with an iron bar or 
flux stick; afterwards, the contents are poured into 
an iron ingot mould having within an octagonal form, 
and which has been previously smeared with some 
clay or plumbago, in order to facilitate the separa- 
tion of the steel ingot after cooling. 

286. When the steel is poured into the mould, it 



CAST STEEL. 185 

often happens that it ascends and runs over the top. 
To avoid this, the mould is immediately covered. 
Great dexterity is necessary in pouring. In some 
works, immediately after pouring, the aperture of 
the mould is closed with an iron stopper, upon which 
the workman strikes, gently at first, more heavily 
afterwards, according as the cooling progresses. 

By cooling, steel contracts, and a pipe hole may 
be produced; this must be prevented as much as 
possible. The contraction, taking place from the 
periphery to the centre, principally when the pour- 
ing in has been too rapid, and the air had not the 
time to escape, will leave in the centre an opening 
of the size of a small finger in the whole length of 
the ingot. 

To obviate this difficulty, the molten steel should 
be directed towards the middle of the mould, with 
out touching the sides, and the pouring should be 
done slowly. 

When the steel is cold, the mould is opened and 
the ingot taken out ; but it must undergo a new 
operation, in order to acquire the fine and close grain 
of the commercial cast steel. Directly from the 
mould, the grain of the steel is coarsely crystallized 
and somewhat similar to that of fine metal ; it must 
be refined, i. e., reheated and drawn under the ham- 
mer to a bar. 

The next figure is a vertical section of an ingot 
mould ; this is made of two parts, which join her- 
16* 



186 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 




Fig. 12. metically and are kept together by means 
of strong movable clamps and iron rings. 
The mould must be larger than what is 
required for the quantity of steel to be 
poured in. "This quantity is generally 
15 to 20 kilogrammes. However, at 
present, larger ingots are manufactured 
by pouring into the same mould the pro- 
duct of several crucibles. Pieces of steel of over 100 
kilogrammes are often cast in this way. 

287. There was exhibited at the exhibition of 
industry a block of steel of 6 tons; such a weight 
indicates some other system than fusion in crucibles 
not holding more than 20 kilogrammes. These fine 
samples, perfect*in quality, were from Prussian steel 
works; 1 they must have required special casting- 
apparatus, but on known principles. Intended for 
exhibition, such masterpieces of manufacture are 
too costly to be applied to the arts, except in certain 
particular cases. Therefore, being without interest 
as regards industrial uses, we shall not dwell any 
longer on this point, which is beyond the limits of 
this work. 

288. Manganese is a powerful auxiliary in the 
manufacture of cast steel, and its use is becoming 
more and more general. We have explained the 

1 At Krupp's works, ingots of 40 tons have lately been cast. — 
Trans. 






CAST STEEL. 187 

effect of such an addition, which regulates the quan- 
tity of carbon in cast steel. 

289. Indeed, steels of cementation will not pre- 
sent, even were they taken from the same cementing 
chest, a complete uniformity in their composition ; 
the carbon penetrates the bars only partially, and 
the pieces of steel put into the crucible are hetero- 
geneous, and with an irregular percentage of carbon. 
When it is ascertained that the steel of cementation 
is wanting in carbon, it is advantageous to throw 
some ground charcoal over the charge; but then, it 
is necessary to have a guide, a substance regulating 
the proportions. Manganese possesses this property. 
In the bottom of the crucible certain reactions take 
place, which are a complete mystery to the manufac- 
turer, and have a great analogy with those of the 
production of natural steel. Cast steel, in order to 
become a chemical alloy (167), must remain some 
time in the crucible, in a molten state. If fusion 
alone were needed, it could be effected in one hour ; 
but in this case, it seems that steel requires time to 
perfect itself. It is certain that changes occur in 
the molten mass, standing perfectly still, without any 
mechanical stirring, because the coarse crystals of 
steel of cementation are transformed into the close, 
fine, and compact crystals of cast steel. 

It might not be out of place to speak, here, of an 
invention by a manufacturer, Mr. Ballefin, for heat- 
ing the crucibles in a furnace where the air is forced 



188 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

through, and where a remarkable economy of fuel is 
effected. But this process having been monopolized 
by a company, and not bearing directly on the manu- 
facture of steel, we may omit it, regretting, however, 
that it is not within the reach of all cast steel manu- 
facturers: then our industry would have been able 
to compete advantageously with -the Sheffield pro- 
ducers. 

VI. 
Wootz. 

290. Wootz is the name of a certain kind of steel 
manufactured in India, and which appears to have 
been known from time immemorial, it being a his- 
toric fact that Porus gave 30 pounds of it to Alex- 
ander. 

291. This steel is made by the natives from a 
magnetic ore, very rich, and in which silica or 
quartz is the only impurity. Its composition is — 

Iron ..... 37.67 
Oxygen . . . .14.33 

Quartz or silica . . . 48.00 



100.00 



At a glance, it is evident that the steel from such 
ore will contain a certain quantity of silicon, but no 
aluminium, as is asserted by some metallurgists. 

This mineral occurs in great abundance in the 
district of Salem, where a great deal of steel is 



wootz. 189 

manufactured. It forms large hills, and is extracted 
from the surface. It undergoes a preliminary pre- 
paration which consists of a stamping, after which 
the foreign matters are mechanically removed. 

292. The furnaces used for the manufacture of 
Indian steel vary much according to their locality. 
At Salem, their form is conical, and the height is 
not over 3 to 4 feet. The bellows are made of two 
dog-skins fitted to a bamboo tube, itself tipped with 
a clay tuyere. The ore is put upon a thick layer 
of charcoal, not otherwise prepared, in the fashion 
of the Catalan forge. After four hours of blast, the 
reduction into steel is effected, and the liquid metal 
obtained is allowed to cool. However, before the 
cooling is complete, and while the steel remains red, 
it is cut into pieces with a hatchet, and delivered to 
the blacksmith. 

293. This steel is far from being homogeneous, and 
is very much like our natural steel. If it were to 
remain so, it would not possess the just celebrity 
acquired by the Wootz steel. 

294. The pieces of the crude steel are drawn into 
bars with the hammer, at a high temperature ; then 
these bars are cut into small pieces, which are put 
into a crucible with some dry wood of Cassia auricu- 
la ta, and some green leaves of Asclepias gigantea. The 
charge is about one pound of steel. In order to 



190 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

prevent any access of air, a lid is forced into the 
crucible, all the joints are perfectly luted with clay 
and allowed to dry. Twenty crucibles thus pre- 
pared are piled up in the same furnace ; the whole 
is covered with charcoal, and fire is immediately 
applied. The fusion lasts two hours, and an excel- 
lent steel is produced. 

295. The mode of working by the natives is so 
imperfect, that, out of 64 per cent, of iron in the ore 
assorted and calcined, only 15 per cent, is extracted. 

296. This method, aside from its imperfections, 
has a great analogy with the processes followed in 
Europe. After all it is cast steel, from natural steel, 
perfectly refined. 

297. The process presents differences according 
to locality. Sometimes the furnace where the ore 
is reduced is 4 to 5 feet high, and so conical that the 
upper part is one foot diameter, while the lower 
part is five feet. This shape is certainly for a better 
concentration of the heat. In some districts, the 
furnace is entirely made of fire clay, and is built in 
a few hours. The front part has an opening about 
one foot high, shut up with clay, and destroyed at 
every operation. The bellows are made of the skin 
of a goat, taken from the animal, without any longi- 
tudinal incision. The legs are sewn up, and the 
neck is tied around a bamboo tube. The incision 



WOOTZ. 191 

at the tail end has its edges straightened by pieces 
of bamboo, thus making a valve which can be opened 
and shut. Handles of wood or leather allow the 
man to work them up and down. Two such bellows 
are required, and by alternately pressing them, a 
steady blast is kept up. The bamboo tubes are in- 
serted into other clay tubes, which are the real 
tuyeres of the furnace. 

This is filled with charcoal, and some light burn- 
ing material being put in front of the tuyere, the 
combustion soon becomes general. At this moment 
the ore, previously moistened to prevent its falling 
through the fuel, is put on top of the charcoal, and 
the whole is covered with enough fuel to last three 
or four hours under the action of the blast. Imme- 
diately after the operation is completed, the bellows 
are stopped, the front of the furnace is broken, and 
with a pair of tongs the metallic lump is extracted 
from the hearth. 

In other places, the furnaces are also four to five 
feet high, but they are more narrow. Some have 
the shape of a truncated cone, whose base is two 
feet in diameter, while the top is one foot. 

298. The "Wootz steel is sold in India in the 
shape of round disks, whose diameter is about 0.126 
to 0.127 metre, and thickness 0.025 to 0.026 metre. 
Each weighs about two pounds; the color of the 
outside is black, and the surface is smooth. The 
texture is regular, the hardness extreme, and the 



192 TEEATISE ON STEEL. 

heaviest hand hammer will leave no impression 
on it. 

VII. 

New Processes. 

299. All the methods for manufacturing steel in 
an industrial way may be reduced to five : — 

1. Redaction of the ore and carburization of the 
iron, or the direct process; 

2. Partial decarburization of pig iron in a finery 
fire; 

3. Partial decarburization of pig iron in a pud- 
dling furnace ; 

4. Cementation of iron ; 

5. Fusion, by which homogeneousness is given to 
any of these steels. 

Therefore, cast steel, or perfect steel (the true 
definite alloy), requires two distinct operations: — 

The carburization or cementation of iron, and the 
partial decarburization of pig iron. 

The fusion or the transformation of the carbide 
into an alloy with definite proportions. 

BOO. Metallurgy has yet, as regards the chemical 
part of the production of the metal, an important 
improvement to make; it is to reduce to one opera- 
tion, the two at present required. Otherwise, it is 
to produce the definite alloy, cast steel, by the direct 
union of iron and carbon. 



NEW PROCESSES. 193 

301. If we have well understood the various pro- 
cesses known and in use, of which we have spoken, 
the chemical or definite steel, which is the true 
steel, is obtained in the following way: When re- 
fining pig iron in a low furnace, or in a puddling 
furnace, the metal is smelted rapidly, and allowed to 
stand a certain length of time under a layer of fluid 
slags, shut up from the air. There it is converted 
into steel, either by losing part of its carbon, or by 
a change in the union of carbon with iron. The 
presence of oxide of manganese will help this re- 
action. 

In the fusion of steel the same phenomenon oc- 
curs ; perfect quietness, without contact with the 
air, more intimate combination, and the regulating 
action of manganese. 

We do not speak now of the two other modes of 
making steel, i. e., the cementation of iron, or that 
of the ore (direct process), as neither affords regu- 
larity or certainty. The former succeeds, only be- 
cause the cementation absorbs an excess of carbon; 
the latter has so much uncertainty in it that the 
workman is never sure to produce steel, and often 
he will make ductile iron instead. 

Our deductions from the practical modes of manu- 
facturing, corroborate the inferences we have drawn 
from theory at the beginning, i. e., that iron and 
carbon alone are sufficient to make steel, and that 
manganese is useful only to regulate the proportion 
of carbon. Silicon, aluminium, and other earthy 
17 



194 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

metals, may be dispensed with, and are only acci- 
dentally to be found in the carburized metal. 

It will be noticed, that in all these processes, there 
is no exact, mathematical proportion, and that the 
incertitude and the approximation which predomi- 
nate in them leave too much to chance. 

302. In one of these processes, Mr. W. E. New- 
ton 1 employs iron ore itself, instead of iron. In a 
cementing furnace, alternating layers of ore and 
charcoal are piled up with the flux the ore may 
require. The furnace is kept during forty-eight 
hours at a white heat. According to the inventor, 
the iron agglutinates into irregular sheets, and the 
slags are mechanically removed. Afterwards, the 
metal is cast, drawn, and worked for springs. We 
confess that this result seems to us very uncertain ; 
it is contrary to the theory of the reduction of iron, 
and we are afraid the author is mistaken. However, 
Mr. Newton is the only inventor who, among the so- 
called discoverers springing up everywhere, has had 
the daring to take in hand the direct use of the ore. 

303. Several metallurgists, among them Mr. Crace 
Calvert, 2 M. Fontaine, of Paris, Mr. Martien, of New 
Jersey, 3 Mr. Tilghman, of Philadelphia, 4 have ob- 
tained patents for the employment of chloride of so- 
dium, and even chlorine, in the manufacture of steel. 

1 Patent of 1855. 2 Patent of 1851. 

3 Patent of 1856. i Patent of 1856. 



NEW PROCESSES. 195 

304. At the close of the last century, David Mus- 
het 1 had used common salt in the metallurgy of iron; 
Samuel Rodgers 2 had recommended its employment 
in 1819 by the iron works of Glamorganshire. 

305. Chloride of sodium acts only by its alkali, 
which is an excellent flux for separating silica from 
iron. Therefore, in certain cases, it may be useful in 
the metallurgy of iron ; but in the manufacture of 
steel it does not act as chloride, and even less by its 
chlorine which has been proposed by Mr, Martien. 
When Mr. Brooman obtained a patent (1854) for the 
use of manganese and chloride of sodium, he must 
have relied upon the first substance for the manufac- 
ture of steel. The other substances which, in 1856 5 
he proposed to add to the two former seem to have 
been picked up without discrimination, as they have 
little, if any, action upon carburized iron. 

306. Eecently (1856), Mr. Robert Mushet, son of 
the celebrated metallurgist of Clyde iron works, ob- 
tained a patent for the addition of manganese which 
he pulverizes and throws upon the molten metal. 
In 1856 this distinguished manufacturer had taken 
not less than eight patents, all relating more or less 
to the use of manganese. 

Some manufacturers have tried to unite pig iron 
with ductile iron, in order to unite with the latter the 
excess of carbon of the former, and thus to make a 

1 Papers on Iron and Steel, p. 133, and following. 

2 S. Rodgers' Letters, unpublished. 



196 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

kind of commercial steel which is not the chemical 
alloy. 

307. Messrs. Price and Nicholson have proposed 
to cast together fine metal and wrought iron, 1 and 
Mr. Gr. Brown 2 has alloyed charcoal pig metal with 
iron made from the same metal. 

308. Mr. Manory goes farther; 3 he not only alloys 
white metal with iron broken into small pieces, but 
he adds to the molten mass oxides of iron, calcium, 
sodium, and potassium. 

309. In 1854 Mr. Sterling had an idea more 
simple and certain: it was to add to the raw metal, 
smelted in a crucible or in a reverberatory furnace, 
progressive quantities of oxide of iron, as long as it 
was necessary to improve the steel. The oxide used 
was as much as possible a magnetic ore. Besides, 
and in order to give body and hardness to the car- 
burized iron, some oxides of tin or zinc were added. 

Mr. Uchatius, whose process has attracted a great 
deal of attention in England, and to which on that 
account we will give a special chapter, employs also 
the oxide of iron which reacts upon the pig iron 
which is very finely granulated. The patent of Mr. 
Uchatius was taken out in 1855, and that of Mr. 
Sterling in 1854. 

1 Patent of 1855. 2 Patent of 1S56. 3 Patent of 1856. 



NEW PKOCESSES. 197 

The oxide of iron used for decarburizing pig iron 
was naturally to lead to the idea of employing the 
oxygen of air or of steam to produce similar results. 
Mr. Martien was the first to think of forcing a blast 
through cast iron in a perfect state of fluidity. 

310. It is certainly to the idea of Mr. Martien that 
the origin of the invention of Mr. Bessemer is due. 
This manufacturer, after having tried for a length of 
time the alloying of pig metal and iron according to 
the process of Messrs. Price and Nicholson, and after 
having originated two kinds of cupolas where the 
smelted pig iron passed alternately from one to the 
other, at last succeeded in decarburizing pig metal 
by a violent blast forced through its particles in the 
molten state. As an entire chapter is devoted to the 
Bessemer process, we shall not here explain it. 

The various processes we have just described do 
not require more explanation. They have not all 
been sanctioned by experience, and most of them 
have remained in the state of theory. We have 
ignored many of them, as being without any indus- 
trial value. The four following processes, although 
yet remaining in the state of experiment, seem to 
us each worthy of a special chapter. 

Chenot Process. 

311. In the ordinary blast furnace where pig iron 
is produced, there are two distinct operations, at 
two different heights of the stack. The iron ore, 

17* 



198 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 



which is a compound of iron, oxygen, and earthy 
matters, is reduced in the upper parts of the furnace, 
after somewhat complex reactions. 

1. At a certain height, the ore comes in contact 
with carbonic oxide (oxide of carbon), which unites 
with its oxygen, and escapes at the mouth in the 
state of carbonic acid. 

Fig. 13. 




2. The earths which accompany it become sepa- 
rated and fall to the lower part of the furnace, 
where they are transformed into slags or cinders. 



NEW PROCESSES. 199 

3. The iron is reduced and remains pure. The 
height, where these reactions occur, is termed the 
zone of reduction. The heat is intense. At this 
point let us see what happens. 

The carbonic acid escaping at the top of the fur- 
nace, the iron and the slag remain, which, on account 
of their specific gravity, fall to the lower part of 
the furnace, where the temperature is greater, and 
where they undergo new reactions. 

312. Every one, at this stage of the operation, 
will think it would be more advantageous to extract 
the perfectly pure iron, instead of allowing it to fall 
among the incandescent coals, where it is trans- 
formed into a carbide or pig iron. 

313. Such was the idea of Mr. Adrien Chenot, 
who thought of stopping the operation just when 
the ore had been converted into pure iron. An in- 
tense heat reigns in the greater part of the furnace, 
five metres above the zone of reduction, and ten 
metres underneath. Why should such a heat be 
kept ten metres under the point where the pure iron 
is obtained ? We readily understand that when 
pig iron is wanted, such a heat is maintained under- 
neath in order that the iron shall be converted 
into pig metal in a carburizing atmosphere. But, 
when ductile iron is wanted, we think it is useless 
and costly to keep up the combustion of the fuel, 
when the product sought for is already obtained. 



200 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

814. Following these principles, Mr. Chenot, in- 
stead of heating the furnace underneath the boshes, 
i. e., the lower part, has directed the highest tem- 
perature to be applied at the zone of reduction. The 
combustion ends there. The pure iron thus produced 
descends gradually into cold boshes, where it cannot 
undergo any new reaction, and where it is found in 
spongy masses mixed with the earths. 

The only operation which remains is a mechanical 
separation of the iron from the earths. This is 
effected by powerful magnets, which, being pre- 
sented to the cold and pulverized residua, separate 
the iron in a state of perfect purity. 

315. This powder of pure iron being submitted 
afterwards to an enormous pressure, which reaches 
above 700 atmospheres, has its atoms so strongly 
united that it acquires the density of iron itself, and 
may be drawn into bars, and undergo all the opera- 
tions of a forge. 

316. This compressed sponge is used by Mr. Che- 
not for cementing the iron, and converting it into 
steel. It has been found, by experiment, that it will 
absorb its own volume of liquid; therefore, it is 
sufficient to dip it into an oleaginous liquid, such as 
coal tar, 1 in order to produce a true carbide — not 

1 Wood tar is considered preferable, as it is more free from 
sulphur tliau coal tar. — Trans. 



NEW PROCESSES. 201 

by combination, but by mixture. The metallic mass 
thus impregnated is put into pots, and cast in the 
■usual way. 

317. This new metallurgy of steel, where all the 
operations can be made without heat, from the reduc- 
tion of the iron to the fusion of steel, will certainly 
revolutionize the metallurgy of iron. It is the 
greatest thought that we have had for a long time 
in applied science. 1 

Bessemer Process. 

318. The process of Mr. Henry Bessemer is a de- 
carburization of pig iron by a powerful blast of air, 
whose divided molecules pass through the carburized 
iron in a liquid state. Therefore, the oxygen of the 
air being in intimate contact with the carbon of pig 
iron, takes of it just what is necessary to leave the 
definite alloy. 

319. Mr. J. Gr. Martien (310) had discovered that 

1 We do not desire to disparage the efforts which may he made 
in that direction, hut some facts in working the Chenot process 
will show the great difficulties to overcome before all sanguine 
expectations can be realized. The ore must be perfectly pure, 
free from earths, and the reduction complete. If all these condi- 
tions are not fulfilled, part of the earths and of the unreduced 
ore will remain in the sponge of iron, and will not be completely 
separated by the magnet. Besides, .all the necessary extra pre- 
cautions are costly. The Chenot process, truly remarkable by 
the simplicity of its principles, has not yet found its way clearly 
into practice. — Trans. 



202 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

by passing a blast of air through molten pig metal, 
not only the carbon of the raw metal was destroyed, 
but also that the temperature remained high enough' 
for keeping the iron in the liquid state and for cast- 
ing it. This discovery of enormous importance had 
however remained in the state of theory, and would 
have made but a feeble sensation, had not Mr. Besse- 
mer undertaken to apply it. 

320. In his former experiments, Mr. Bessemer was 
running molten pig iron from a blast furnace or from 
a cupola into another cupola, at the bottom of which 
several tuyeres were giving the necessary blast. If 
the blast is shut off just at the proper time, steel is 
produced ; if the blast is allowed to act long enough 
for completely decarburizing the metal, ductile iron 
is made. The great difficulty in practice is to ascer- 
tain the proper time for stopping the blast. Gene- 
rally, the pig metal is over decarburized ; and to 
make up for the deficiency of carbon in the steel, a 
small quantity of molten sjnegeleisen 1 is added to the 
metal in the converter. A few minutes more of blast 
will thoroughly mix the whole mass, which is then 
ready to be cast into ingots. 

The first idea of using spiegeleisen is due to Mr. 
Eobert Mushet. This metal acts by its carbon and 

1 Spiegeleisen {mirror iron) is the German name of a kind of 
pig iron very rich in carbon (5 per cent.) and manganese (4 per 
cent.). — Trans. 






NEW PKOCESSES. 



203 



its manganese at the same time. From its employ- 
ment dates the practical turn of the Bessemer process. 
In this process, and in all others where the oxygen 
of the air acts alone, very pure pig metal is needed 
for the manufacture of pure steel or iron ; silicon 
and carbon will be removed, but sulphur and phos- 
phorus will remain in the manufactured product if 
they were already in the raw iron. For removing 
these latter impurities several substances have been 
proposed and experimented upon ; time and practice 
will determine their value. 

Fig. ]4. 




Converter with the engine. 



321. The cupola of the former experiments has 
given place to the above apparatus. The converting 
vessel or converter, which we will describe more com- 
pletely hereafter, revolves on two trunnions. One of 
them is hollow and is connected by a coupling box 
with the blowing machine, the blast passing through 
a curved pipe along the lower part of the converter 



201 TKEATISE ON STEEL. 

and terminating in a metallic box beneath the appa- 
ratus. The. other bears a strong pinion, to which a 
revolving motion is given by a rack at the end of 
the piston-rod of a double-acting, water-pressure 
engine. 

. 322. The converter itself is an ellipsoidal vessel, 
made of strong wrought-iron plate. The lower and 
upper parts are bolted together. On the top is an 
oblique mouth for receiving the charge of metal, and 
for the escape of gases, &c. At the bottom, a metallic 
box receives the blast and divides it through the 
tuyeres, five, six, or seven in number. The trunnions 
are fixed upon a large wrought-iron belt, about mid- 
way of the apparatus. The inside lining must be 
made very carefully ; the refractory clay, strongly 
beaten into it, is mixed with a certain quantity of 
quartz (ganister), or ground fire-brick free from 
scoria3 (chamotte or cement). 

The hole of the tuyere is also made of fire-bricks, 
with all the joints carefully luted. When the lining 
is dry, a charcoal fire is built in it, and all cracks 
closed. Afterwards, a stronger fire is built, some 
blast is given, and the interior receives a glazing 
of common salt. 

The ashes having being removed, the apparatus is 
ready for working. The converters are made to re- 
ceive from three to five tons of molten pig iron, 
which should, however, occupy only a small place 
in it; the reaction and the boiling are so violent, 



NEW PROCESSES. 
Fig. 15. 



205 




that part of the metal would be thrown out, if there 
were not plenty of room. 

323. Everything being ready, the converter is 
placed in a horizontal position, and the charge of pig 
iron, previously smelted in a cupola or reverberatory 
furnace, is run into it by means of a trough lined 
with sand. The charge is then level with the tuyeres, 
and the blast is turned on before the converter is 
made to revolve to its vertical position, which is 
done slowly. After fifteen to twenty minutes of 
18 



206 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

blast, the converter is swung again to a horizontal 
position, in order to receive the additional charge of 
five to ten per cent, of spiegeleisen. Having again 
been made to assume the vertical position, after five 
minutes more of blast, the steel is completed and run 
into a large ladle supported by a crane. From this 
ladle the ingot moulds are filled. 

The whole operation is one of the most impres- 
sive in iron metallurgy; torrents of sparks and 
flame escape from the mouth of the converter. The 
energy of the reaction diminishes as the decarburiza- 
tion progresses, but it is very difficult to ascertain 
exactly the proper time for emptying the converter 
of its contents. It is thought that spectral analysis 
will give the proper indication ; at present, the 
guides are a certain duration of the blast for a given 
quantity of pig metal, and the appearance of the 
flame viewed with the naked eye or through different 
colored glasses superposed (blue and yellow) giving 
a dark neutral tint. Through these glasses, the 
flame appears white as long as the decarburization 
is going on, and turns red when all the carbon has 
been burnt off. 

The oxidization of silicon takes place before that 
of carbon. The silica unites with oxide of iron, 
and forms a small quantity of slag. The pressure 
of the blast is about fifteen pounds to the square 
inch. 



NEW PROCESSES. 207 

Taylor Process. 

324. At the close of the year 1857, Mr. Taylor 
tried to employ atmospheric air for decarburizing 
pig metal and manufacturing steel, by submitting to 
a powerful blast, molten pig iron spread over a very 
large surface. We do not think this process more 
advantageous than that of Mr. Bessemer, but rather 
inferior; however, as it is very ingenious, we sup- 
pose its description will not be out of place here. 

325. A semi-spherical kettle made of fire-brick 
or of metal lined with fire-brick, is inclosed in an 
arched space. The kettle is fixed at the end of a 
vertical shaft, and made to revolve horizontally with 
a rapidity of motion which may be varied at will. 
Above the kettle, and in the arch, an aperture is left 
for introducing the molten metal. This metal, fall- 
ing into the rotating kettle, spreads itself against the 
sides, thus presenting a large surface to the action 
of the air. The decarburization is easy, and more 
or less rapid. 

326. The rapidity of the refining depends on the 
velocity of the rotary motion of the apparatus, and 
on the quantity and pressure of the blast. By 
stopping the operation at a given time, a more or 
less decarburized metal, i. e., steel, or ductile iron is 
produced. The process is, therefore, an ingenious 
modification of the Bessemer invention. 



208 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

327. In this modification there is an improvement, 
i. e., that by using the apparatus of Mr. Taylor, the 
manufacture of iron or steel is continuous,, and, 
therefore, presents a great economy. 

The pig metal becoming more and more decar- 
burized, ascends the sides of the kettle, by centrifugal 
force, until it reaches the top edge over which it 
flows, and is projected to some distance against 
brick walls. Thence, the molten decarburized metal 
flows into a cavity, where it is collected for filling 
the moulds. The temperature increases during the 
operation, and the metal remains fluid all the time. 
As new quantities of raw metal are continually 
added, and the blast is steady, there is a continuous 
flow of liquid metal. This is not the case with the 
Bessemer process. 

The apparatus is built in such a way that the ver- 
tical shaft and all the gearings are protected against 
the intense heat of the place ; when necessary, cold 
water is run into the space left between the double 
walls. 

Uehatius Process. 

328. Mr. Franz Uehatius, captain in the Austrian 
army, manufactures steel from pig iron sufficiently 
decarburized with oxide of iron and some manga- 
nese. 

329. Charcoal, pig iron, and powdered spathic ore 
are employed. 



NEW PEOCESSES. 209 

330. The first operation consists in granulating the 
pig iron, that is, reducing it to the size of shot. In 
this state, there is a greater surface to be acted upon 
by the oxygen of the ore, and the conversion is more 
rapid. The molten pig metal is made to fall into a 
tub of water 1 upon a broom which a workman is 
moving as near the surface as possible. The metal 
becomes very finely granulated. 2 

331. The theory of this process has been already 
explained at the beginning of this work. The excess 
of carbon in the pig iron is extracted by the oxygen 
of the ore. With the exact proportion of carbon 
the steel is hard, a little iron added to it makes it 
soft. 

332. The granulated pig iron is put into a graphite 
crucible with some pulverized ore. If this is spathic, 
no manganese is needed, because it holds some 
already, otherwise, manganese is added. 

1 This process for granulating pig iron is well known. For a 
long time it lias been employed for making spherical shot. In 
the year 1763 (July 29, No. 794), John and Charles Wood took 
out a patent in England for this purpose. 

2 The apparatus of M. de Rostaing for granulating metals 
would seem to be preferable. It consists of a metallic disk cov- 
ered with refractory materials, and revolving with great rapidity 
in an inclosed space. By centrifugal action, the molten metal 
thrown upon it is projected in a very minute state against the 
walls of the room or cellar, and made to fall into water if de- 
sired. — Trans. 

18* 



210 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

833. For manufacturing hard steel the propor- 
tions are : — 

Granulated pig iron . . . 1000 

Spathic ore 250 

Manganese 15 

334. An experiment made before a commission of 
French engineers has given the following results: — 
Granulated pig iron . . 11.58 kilog. 
Iron ore holding manganese 2.89 " 

The operation lasted one hour and forty-five 
minutes, and the product was 12.40 kilogrammes of 
steel with a granular fracture, somewhat fibrous, and 
of a grayish color. 

The proportions for middling hard or mild steel 
are the same; but to 100 parts of pig metal 12.5 
parts of ductile iron are added. 

The trial was made with the following quanti- 
ties : — 

Pig iron 12 kilog. 

Ore 3 " 

Pieces of iron . . . 1 " 

The operation lasted two hours and twenty-five 
minutes; and the steel weighed 14.85 kilogrammes. 
Its appearance was very much like the first sample, 
but of a lighter gray. 

Soft steel was made with the following sub- 
stances : — 



DAMASCUS STEEL. 211 

Pig iron . . . .10 kilog. 

Ore 2.5 " 

Iron 2 " 

After two hours and eight minutes, the product 
was 12.70 kilogrammes of steel, more grained than 
the previous one, and bluish-gray. 

335. Therefore, on an average, 13.32 kilogrammes 
of various kinds of steel have been produced in two 
hours and six minutes, or 100 kilogrammes in fifteen 
hours and forty-six minutes. 

The expense in fuel has been, in weight, 2.30 of 
coke for one of cast steel, or 230 of coke, equivalent 
to 510 of pit coal, for 100 of steel. 

VIII. 

Damascus Steel. 

336. Damascus steel, forged into thin blades, ap- 
pears generally with veins and waving lines, well 
known, easily seen, and which indicate a metallic 
compound of excellent quality, very tenacious, hard, 
and difficult to break. In the Eastern countries this 
kind of steel is mostly applied to the manufacture 
of sabres and scimetars. 

337. At Caboul Sir Alexander Burnes saw a sci- 
metar valued at five thousand rupees ($2500), and 
two others estimated at fifteen hundred rupees each. 
The peculiar value of the former was due to the 



212 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

great uniformity of its silky veins through its whole 
length. The value would have been a great deal 
less had the texture been intersected by transverse 
or angular lines. A sword of Persian manufacture, 
the lines of which were not continuous and parallel 
to the direction of the blade, was not highly priced. 
It belonged to Nadir-Shah. Another scimetar, from 
the Khorassan, did not present an elongated and un- 
dulating texture, but was dotted with small black 
spots. All these blades would vibrate like a bell 
when struck upon. It was asserted that they would 
improve by time. 

338. For over half a century, efforts have, been 
made to imitate the Damascus blades; often a very 
fine and variegated appearance has been obtained by 
piling (fagoting) and welding together steel and iron 
bars, or even different sorts of steel. All kinds of 
figures have been produced, waves, iridescent silky 
fibres, a twisted texture, mottled and dotted fibres, 
letters, inscriptions, leaves, flowers, &c, have been 
delineated with great perfection ; but it has not 
been possible to produce a true Damascus steel, or 
blades having the same qualities as those manufac- 
tured in Persia, India, &c. From the ability ex- 
erted in Europe, and principally in France, in the 
effort to imitate the Damask steel, we may infer that 
the excellent quality of this product is not due so 
much to skill, as to the nature of the materials em- 
ployed. Recent experiments have shown that when 






DAMASCUS STEEL. 213 

the blades are cooled slowly, as by moving them in 
the air, the damaskeened appearance results from a 
large quantity of carbon. However, this is not so 
recent a discovery, because all the blades of Solingen, 
which are the nearest approach to Damascus steel, 
have been hardened in that way for centuries. This 
method evidently appears the best, when it is de- 
sired to preserve all the tenacity of the steel. 

339. The damaskeened fibres will appear by wash- 
ing the polished surface of the steel with diluted 
sulphuric or muriatic acid, which dissolves the soft 
parts of the steel, or those which hold less carbon. 
The steel is afterwards washed in pure water, 
dried, and covered with a film of oil or beeswax. 
We do not believe this is the method employed by 
the Orientals; it is more probable that, according 
to Aristotle, they bury their steel in the ground for 
a greater or less length of time. 

340. Mr. Henri, of Bougival, has succeeded in 
manufacturing a damaskeened cast steel, entirely 
similar to the Eastern steel. We add here an ex- 
tract of the Bulletin de la Suciete cV Encouragement, 
which gives an idea of this curious fabrication. 

"A long series of experiments," the author says, 
"undertaken in view of elucidating the question, 
has demonstrated to me that the material of the 
Damascus steel is a cast steel, with more carbon 
than is found in our European steels, and into which, 



214 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

by proper cooling, have crystallized two distinct 
combinations of iron and carbon. 

"This separation is the essential condition, be- 
cause, if the molten metal is suddenly cooled, as in 
a small ingot mould, the damaskeened fibre appears 
under a magnifying glass only. 

"The law discovered by Berzelius, by which a 
combination takes place between two bodies having 
some affinity, explains satisfactorily this character- 
istic property of Damascus steel, of showing a 
pattern on its polished surface, by the action of a 
very diluted acid. 

" If the combination of bodies having some affi- 
nity take place only in definite proportions, all that 
is in excess of the proportion is not combined, but 
only mixed. Now iron and carbon form at least 
three distinct combinations: Steel, at one end of the 
series, contains only a very small quantity of carbon 
(one hundredth); on the contrary, in plumbago, there 
is twelve to fifteen times more carbon than iron ; 
white and gray pig irons are intermediate. 

"Let us suppose that in the manufacture of steel, 
the quantity of carbon is deficient; the quantity of 
steel will be in exact proportion to the quantity of 
carbon combined ; the remainder will be iron mixed 
with it : therefore, by slow cooling, the molecules 
of steel being more fusible, will have a tendency to 
unite together and be separated from the iron. This 
alloy will produce a damaskeened pattern ; but the 
pattern will be white, not very apparent, and the 



DAMASCUS STEEL. 215 

metal cannot become very Lard, on account of being 
mixed with iron. 

" If the proportion of carbon is precisely that 
necessary for converting all the iron into steel, 
there will be but one kind of combination ; there- 
fore, no separation of distinct compounds will take 
place during cooling. This, I presume, will indicate 
the proper proportion of carbon in the manufacture 
of the kind of steel best adapted to the working of 
metals. 

"But, if the carbon is slightly in excess, all the 
iron will be converted first into steel ; afterwards, 
the carbon remaining free in the crucible will com- 
bine in a new proportion with the steel already 
made. There will be two distinct compounds: pure 
steel and carburized steel or pig metal ; these two 
compounds, intimately mixed at the beginning, will 
have a tendency to separate from each other by the 
molten mass standing undisturbed. Then a crystal- 
lization will take place, by which the molecules of 
the two compounds will aggregate, according to their 
affinity, and their specific gravity. 

"If a blade, made of steel, thus prepared be dipped 
into acidulated water, a showy pattern will be re- 
vealed, in which the parts of pure steel will be black, 
and those of carburized steel will remain white/ be- 
cause the acidulated water has more difficulty in 
causing the carbon of the carburized steel to appear. 

" The carbon, irregularly distributed in the metal, 
and forming two distinct combinations, is therefore 



216 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

the cause of the damaskeened pattern; and we can 
easily understand that the slower the cooling, the 
larger will be the damaskeened veins. On this ac- 
count, it would probably be better not to melt too 
large quantities at once, or to modify somewhat the 
process. As agreeing with my opinion, I would name 
Tavernier, who, in his 'Journey in Persia,' has given 
some indications about the size of the lumps of steel 
which, in his time, were used for making Damascus 
blades. 

" ' The steel for damaskeening comes,' says he, 
'from Golconda; it is found in the trade, in pieces 
as big as a one penny loaf of bread. They are cut 
in two, in order to ascertain if they are of the proper 
quality, and from each half, a sabre blade is made.' 

"According to this narration it is apparent that 
the Golconda steel was in circular lumps like the 
Wootz, and that their weight was not over two or 
three kilogrammes. 

"Tavernier adds that, 'if when hardening this 
steel, the European processes were followed, it would 
break like glass.' We must infer from this that it is 
very difficult to forge, an observation already made 
by Keaumur. 

"This savant, having received from Cairo some 
samples of Indian steel, could not find anybody in 
Paris able to forge them. On that subject, he says 
that the fault is in our workmen, because the Orien- 
tals are able to work that kind of steel. 

"As carbon is the essential part, not only in the 



DAMASCUS STEEL. 217 

formation of the pattern, but also in the intrinsic 
qualities of the steel, it is to be supposed that Messrs. 
Stodard and Faraday have been mistaken in their 
researches, the same as I have been for a long time, 
when they attribute to metallic alloys effects more 
particularly due to an excess of carbon. 

"I am very far from contesting the presence of 
metallic alloys in the Oriental sabres, although in 
the few samples I have been able to analyze, I never 
found silver, gold, palladium, nor rhodium ; neverthe- 
less it seems to me very probable that such combina- 
tions have been attempted. Indeed the same people 
who had succeeded in hardening copper by alloys, 
must have tried similar processes with iron. 

"Following that idea, I have formed various me- 
tallic alloys, some of them giving satisfactory results. 
One of the sabre blades I have exhibited, contains 
one-half of one per cent, of platinum and a greater 
proportion of carbon than is to be found in ordinary 
steels. It is to that excess of carbon that the pattern 
is mostly due. Some excellent razors have been 
made with the same alloy." 

341. Experiments made by smelting together pig- 
iron, carbon, and alumina, produced a highly alumi- 
nous steel which was welded and drawn with a steel 
of cementation. From this mixture a steel was ob- 
tained very much like the Wootz, and producing 
immediately a damaskeened pattern. However, skil- 
19 " 



218 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

ful metallurgists assert that aluminum is not indis- 
pensable for the manufacture of Damascus steel. 

IX. 
Intermixed Metals (EtofFes). 

342. The intermixed metallic tissues are alloys of 
steel with one or several metals, producing a metal 
whose fibres present different patterns, and are 
elongated, interlaced, or zigzag. 1 

343. The experiments of Messrs. Stodard and 
Faraday, and those of Guyton-Morveau, have de- 
monstrated that steel may be alloyed intimately with 
silver, gold, platinum, rhodium, nickel, and copper. 
On such authority new alloys have been tried every- 
where, to which, by the way, too great merits have 
been attributed. The French manufacturers, accord- 
ing to foreigners, are those who have spent the most 
money and time in such experiments. 2 

344. An alloy which deserves great notice is that 
of silver with steel. The former of these metals, as 
is well known, has a tendency to separate from steel 
in the form of thread and drops. Therefore, when 
the alloy is heated and kept fluid for a certain length 
of time, it seems perfectly homogeneous and com- 

1 Wire twist, stub twist, stub Damascus, &c, for guns, are 
metallic tissues of iron and steel. — Trans. 

2 Frederick Overman. Philadelphia. 



INTERMIXED METALS. 219 

pact ; but by cooling and solidifying, the silver seems 
to ooze through the metallic texture, and appears in 
small separate drops. When, in forging, the heat is 
slow and moderate, instead of drops, filaments will 
appear as slender and elongated as those of the capil- 
lary silver in certain kinds of silver ores. 

345. Therefore, silver does not alloy chemically 
with steel and iron ; 1 part of silver and 100, 200, 
and 4.00 parts of steel do not produce an intimate 
union, and the silver is constantly separated in the 
form of filaments. For an intimate alloy, 500 parts 
of steel and 1 of silver are necessary. 

This alloy has a very fine appearance ; it is so 
hard that, in this respect, it ranks above the best cast 
steel, even the Wootz. It does not crack by hard- 
ening, nor by hammering, and produces, by forging, 
tools and instruments perfect in quality and excellent 
for use. 

846. The English metallurgists prefer the rhodium 
steel, it being harder. This alloy contains 1 to 3 
per cent, of rhodium, and requires to be tempered 
at a higher temperature than is necessary with cast 
steel. Such is the tenacity of rhodium steel, that 
cutting instruments made of it will bear a tempering 
of 30° Fahrenheit above that given to the best 
Wootz. Its damaskeened patterns are very fine. An 
alloy of steel with 1.5 per cent, of rhodium has a 
specific gravity of 7.795. 



220 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

347. Steel alloyed with platinum is not so hard as 
the silver steel alloy, but has a greater tenacity. 
The two metals appear to unite in every proportion, 
and when the fusion has been complete, no separa- 
tion takes place, as is the case with silver and steel. 
The metallic compound is perfectly homogeneous. 

348. Equal parts of steel and platinum produce 
excellent mirrors, which will polish well, and will 
not tarnish. The specific gravity of the alloy is 
9.862 before forging. 

With only 10 per cent, of platinum the alloy will 
not tarnish, and will receive a polish fine enough for 
mirrors. 

For cutting instruments, the alloy which appears 
the most proper, contains from 1 to 3 per cent, of 
platinum. 

The characteristic property of the alloys of steel 
with platinum is their resistance to oxidation. 

349. Chromium and steel give an alloy with some 
valuable properties in certain cases. It is rather 
difficult to produce their intimate union; neverthe- 
less, with care and some precautions, this can be done. 
The process employed by Mr. Berthier, who was the 
first to make useful experiments on chromium steel, 
is as follows : — 

He mixed 10 parts of the natural chrome iron ore 
with 6 parts of iron scales, and 10 parts of glass free 
from metallic substances. The whole was smelted in 



INTERMIXED METALS. 221. 

a brasqued crucible in a wind furnace. The result 
was a lump weighing 7 parts. 

This alloy was then combined with steel in the 
proportion of 1 to 1.5 per cent, of chromium. The 
chromium steel thus manufactured is excellent. It 
can be forged, and presents a fine damaskeened pat- 
tern, if, after polishing, it is treated with diluted sul- 
phuric acid. The veins are of a bright silver color, 
very much like those of silver steel, but very pro- 
bably they are pure chromium. 



19' 



PART THIRD. 

WORKING OF STEEL. 



350. Drawing or tilting an impure and heteroge- 
neous steel, when cast steel is not at hand; welding 
together several pieces of steel, or steel to iron by 
way of economy; or annealing a steel too harsh or 
too hard ; hardening it when too soft ; giving to it by 
fire, and after hardening, the degree of temper pro- 
per to the various duties it has to perform ; com- 
pressing its texture and at the same time giving it 
a regular and straight shape; such are the six mani- 
pulations to which steel is generally subjected. 

We will make six chapters of these manipulations 
under the titles of Refining hy Draiving or Tilting, 
Welding, Annealing, Hardening, Tempering, Hammer 
Hardening. 

I. 

Refining by Drawing or Tilting. 

351. The processes for manufacturing natural steel 
are so incomplete and uncertain, that very rarely a 



224 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

homogeneous, tenacious, and elastic steel is thus ob- 
tained. Where it is not possible or not required to 
perfect its homogeneousness by fusion, it must, how- 
ever, before being delivered to the trade, be drawn 
the same as iron, in order to give more regularity 
and a more uniform composition to its texture. This 
drawing is sometimes termed refining. 

The number of heats given to steel during draw- 
ing, depends on the quality of the crude steel; the 
more homogeneous it is the less drawing it requires. 
An exposure to the fire, too often repeated, will 
burn the carbon, and it may happen that the na- 
ture of the metal will be entirely changed. 

352. The blooms are drawn into slabs or flat bars 
0.55 to 0.66 metre long, and 0.40 to 0.50 metre 
wide, which are plunged into cold water when red 
hot. Afterwards they are piled up, taking care to 
match them well. The practice of the workman 
makes this easy by judging the fracture of the slabs. 
The outside slabs are of one piece, but the inside 
ones may have various dimensions, and may contain 
broken pieces. 

The bundles or fagots are put into a reheating fur- 
nace, heated to the welding point, and well sprinkled 
with clay. This is done to cover them with a layer 
of slag which protects them against the decarburiz- 
ing action of air. The bundle is then carried to the 
hammer or the rollers, where it is drawn into a square 
slab 0,04 to 0.045 metre thick, which is afterwards 



WELDING. 225 

cut in two, doubled, welded, drawn again, &c. The 
same operation takes place three or four times. 

353. The furnaces employed are similar to the re- 
heating furnaces for puddled iron. Sometimes they 
are forge fires covered with a depressed arch. In 
the former, pit coal is burned; in the latter, charcoal 
or very pure coke. 

354. The experience of the workman who makes 
the bundles has a great deal to do with the improve- 
ment of the steel; if he is skilful, he may remedy the 
bad quality of steel by a judicious choice of slabs, 
when, however, the bad quality does not come from 
the raw metal itself. 

Hammered or tilted steel is considered better than 
rolled. Shear steel is a steel of cementation which 
has been piled, welded, drawn, doubled, &c, one or 
more times, according to its quality. 

II. 

Welding. 

355. The relatively low temperature at which 
steel loses its carbon and becomes less valuable, is 
the great difficulty in welding steel to iron. If the 
workman heats the former metal too much, the ope- 
ration fails, and it is customary to charge the result 
of unskiifulness to the bad quality of the steel. 
Those who succeed by practice and knowledge of 



226 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

the materials they employ, pretend to possess a se- 
cret, an herb, a salt, or something else which they 
have discovered or inherited. This is the secret: — 

356. The iron must receive a glaring welding 
heat, while the steel is heated a great deal less. We 
must bear in mind, that when the two bars are 
brought into contact, their two temperatures will 
become equipoised, and if then the temperature of 
the steel is too high, it will lose its quality. The 
proper degree of temperature for steel is cherry red; 
above this it will entirely lose its tenacity, and 
crumble to pieces under the hammer. On the con- 
trary, iron is welded at a glaring white heat; and it 
may yet support a small increase of temperature before 
melting. There is a proper time for setting the piece 
of steel, which requires all the attention of the work- 
man. 1 

357. The respective masses of iron and steel must 
also be considered in the operation. If the volume 
of steel is small compared with that of the iron to 

1 Greater difficulties are encountered when the chemical com- 
position, i. e., proportions of carbon, of steel and iron are too 
remote. For instance, a very hard cast steel (highly carbu- 
rized) will be difficult to weld with a very soft, fibrous iron 
(scarcely carburized). Less carburized steels, such as shear 
steel, mild steel, natural steel, will weld readily with iron. But 
with very hard or harsh steel a certain kind of iron, called 
steely iron, will be found useful, having a composition inter- 
mediate between iron and steel. — Trans. 



ANNEALING. 227 

which it is to be welded, the former metal might be 
heated too much by absorbing part of the heat of 
the iron. Therefore, when a small piece of steel is 
to be welded to a large piece of iron, a careful work- 
man will heat thoroughly only the part where the 
steel is to be applied, in order that the equilibrium 
of temperature may be distributed in the whole mass, 
and not in the steel alone. If the piece of steel is 
larger than the iron, it should be heated as much as 
practicable. 

858. Formerly, and with good results, borax was 
used for welding steel to iron, this (lux lowering the 
point of fusion of steel. At present, it is employed 
only when welding steel to steel. 

III. 

Annealing. 

359. We must not confound the tempering given 
to steel after hardening, with the annealing given to 
the unhardened metal in order to make it softer 
under the file. 

360. Tempering after hardening, as will be ex- 
plained (38-i), diminishes the brittleness and hard- 
ness of steel, at the same time giving it body and 
some elasticity. This result once obtained, the steel 
is to remain in the state acquired by the tempering. 
B} r annealing in the forge, steel is only prepared for 



228 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

the "hammer or the file, and it may, and often must 
be hardened afterwards. 

361. Annealing steel is useful; but the fire must 
not be pushed to the utmost, as is commonly done. 
It seldom happens that steel is pure, i. e., contains 
exactly the proportion of carbon which constitutes 
the definite alloy (153, 167); generally there is an 
excess of carbon. As this excess of carbon has less 
affinity for the metal than the carbon of the definite 
alloy, it may be easily expelled at a moderate heat, 
where the oxygen of the air is the decarburizing 
agent. But if the temperature is too high, part of 
the carbon of the alloy is burned out, the iron itself 
is oxidized and covered with scales, and the steel 
becomes deteriorated, loses its nature, softens too 
much, and diminishes considerably in weight. 

Some manufacturers well conversant with the 
working of steel, have adopted the following rational 
method for annealing: — 

362. They heat the steel to dark red, called by 
some blood red heat, and afterwards plunge it quickly 
into charcoal dust, where it cools. Others dip it into 
water. 

Annealing in water is a hardening at a low tem- 
perature, which, as will be seen in our chapter on 
hardening, produces a steel soft, and easily filed. 



363. Annealing in charcoal dust is a sort of 



HARDENING. 229 

cementation which, on the contrary, will increase the 
hardness of steel, by taking off part of its homoge- 
neousness. These defects may be corrected by 
hammering, but it is preferable to avoid them. 

IV. 
Hardening. 

364. When steel is heated, it expands, and its 
constituent principles, iron and carbon, take a dif- 
ferent grouping from that which they had when 
cold ; the carbon in the amorphic state has a ten- 
dency to crystallize, thus becoming hard ; and the 
electricity which is developed in iron up to a cherry- 
red heat, produces in the metal a crystallized texture 
which is favored by a previous hammer hardening. 
All parts are in a state of extreme tension. 

365. If, after being heated to a cherry-red, steel is 
allowed to cool slowly, the texture does not return 
entirely to its primitive state ; it is less crystalline, 
and would be fibrous, were it not for the presence of 
carbon. The result is a partial softening and more 
ductility, due to a less quantity of carbon on the sur- 
face, and to a tendency of the iron to have its fibres 
elongated. 

366. If, instead of allowing steel to soften by a 
slow and progressive cooling, it is plunged into a cold 
liquid, such as water, at exactly that moment when 
all the molecules are strongly extended, and in a 

20 



230 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

sort of confusion due to the unequal dilatation of 
their elements, all movement ceases. The molecules 
of the two elements of steel remain in the position 
they had acquired, the texture remains granular, and 
the steel becomes hard. 

867. Such is the phenomenon of hardening, many 
times explained in a more or less satisfactory way. 

268. Hardening is the operation by which steel 
is rendered hard. At least, this practical definition 
cannot be criticized. 

369. It is evident that the metal, having extended, 
previous to its immersion in cold water, and having 
retained its texture as it was before the sudden cool- 
ing, the hardened steel has lost its primitive specific 
gravity, and has therefore increased in volume. 

870. Eed-hot steel dipped into tepid water, does 
not gain much hardness ; the mass is not suddenly 
cooled, and the texture is somewhat changed. Oils, 
tallow, and most fatty matters, which become hot, 
and are even vaporized by contact with the burning 
metal, produce only a feeble hardening. Generally, 
the colder the liquid, the greater is the hardening, 
because its action upon the texture of the steel is 
more rapid. 1 

1 Also, certain metals or liquids which have a greater conduc- 
tibility for heat than water, will produce hardening, by sudden 
absorption of the heat of steel. Such are quicksilver, and some 
saline or acid solutions. — Trans. 



HARDENING. 231 

371. Therefore, we may consider as a settled fact, 
that the hardness of steel is in proportion to the difference 
of the extreme temperatures of the heated steely and of 
the liquid. into which it has been immersed. 

372. However, this theory has some limits : har- 
dened at too high a temperature, that is, when the 
dilatation has separated the molecules of steel too 
much, the grains or confused crystals thus produced 
are no longer able to retain the elasticity in the 
metal. These grains are larger than usual, rough 
and bright ; and the steel is brittle, dry, and easily 
crumbled to pieces under the hammer. 

373. A cherry-red heat appears generally to be the 
most proper for hardening : at such a temperature, 
cast steel and other good steels acquire the maximum 
of hardness, and present a fine granular appearance. 
With a dark red heat, hardening does not produce 
much effect, the steel remains soft; with common 
kinds of steel, the grains are irregular and inter- 
mixed with particles of iron. When the temperature 
has been raised too high, steel is injured, and loses 
a portion of its tenacity and hardness. 

374. Notwithstanding what has been said, and the 
so called experience of some practical metallurgists, 
pure water is the best liquid for hardening steel. 
It is a mistake to believe, with the ancients, that 
certain waters are more adapted to this operation 



232 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

than others. The only difference lies in their tem- 
perature. A workman of Caen, Mr. Damesme, who 
has published a diffuse work on steel, has tried the 
hardening of steel in the juices of vegetables, and 
has ascertained that there is comparatively no advan- 
tage over hardening in water. Mercury has no other 
property than that of being cold, and of producing 
a hardness which can be obtained with water at the 
same temperature. Tallow and oils, where carbon 
is one of the constituent elements, produce an imper- 
fect hardening, but prevent a loss of carbon. When 
by overheating, steel has been burned and decar- 
barized, the oils and fatty matters are useful, because 
they give back to the steel a part of the carbon 
lost in the fire. Some acids, such as sulphuric, are 
justly considered as imparting more hardness to steel, 
by dissolving a film of iron from the surface and 
exposing the carbon. As for urine, alcohol, brandy, 
and a thousand other liquids extolled by ignorant 
workmen, they are not worth as much as water 
which has the advantage of being abundant every- 
where, cheap, and adapted to all changes of tempe- 
rature. 

375. Steel should be hardened to the point cor- 
responding to its nature and its use. Indeed, it is 
possible to correct the quality, either by increasing 
the hardness by a very cold dipping liquid, or by 
producing more elasticity when tempering; but these 
corrections are left too much to the judgment of the 



HARDENING. 233 

workman to be considered efficacious. For instance, 
in fine cutlery, and principally in the manufacture of 
surgical instruments, every instrument must have its 
peculiar hardness and tenacity-. Yery few men always 
succeed in the operation, which, generally, is left to 
chance. 

Hammers, cold chisels for iron, drills, engraving 
tools, require a strong hardening, a great hardness ; 
sabres, razors, straw-cutters, &c, do not require to 
be dipped into very cold water; table-knives, scis- 
sors, and springs, require less hardness. 

376. We readily understand, that if the tempera- 
ture the most proper for the degree of hardness and 
tenacity of the instrument were known, it would be 
sufficient to raise the instrument to that temperature, 
and to immerse it afterwards in water. 

377. Some workmen heat the steel which is to be 
hardened, much above a cherry-redness, allow it to 
cool slowly in the air, and wait till it has taken a 
certain color, previous to plunging it into water. 
This is a very bad practice, because, by an excess of 
heat, there is a loss of carbon, and an alteration of 
the steel, which has then large grains, and is without 
tenacity at the edges. 

378. In order to graduate the heat, and to bring 
the instruments to various and distinct temperatures, 
D. Hartley, in 1789, thought of using a pyrometer, 

20* 



234 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 



when hardening. This process, very good, indeed, 
was difficult in practice. Sir Parkes was more suc- 
cessful, by determining in advance the various points 
of fusion and of perfect liquidity of certain metallic 
alloys. These temperatures being known, steel is 
plunged, into the molten alloy, the same as into a 
forge-fire, and when thoroughly heated, is dipped 
into cold water. 

379. Although this method has not been generally 
employed, for the sake of its ingenuity, we will take 
from the compositions of Sir Parkes, those which 
most nearly correspond with the various colors and 
temperatures necessary for certain instruments. 

The temperatures are in degrees centigrade: — 



Lead. 


Tin. 


Temperature of fusion. 


7 parts. 


4 parts. 


213.40° 


71 U 
•2 


4 " 


221.11° 


8 " 


4 " 


225.50° 


8h " 


4 " 


232.22° 


10 " 


4 " 


240.90° 


14 " 


4 " 


251.90° 


19 " 


4 " 


262.35° 


30 " 


4 " 


273.90° 


48 " 


4 " 


284.90° 


50 " 


4 " 


289.20° 



Linseed oil boils at 312.40°. 
Lead melts at 319 . 1 



1 The metallic baths above named are certainly not for heating 
steel previous to hardening, but for tempering steel already hard- 



TEMPERING. 235 

V. 
Tempering. 

880. Hardened steel is generally harsh and brittle; 
so is chilled iron, probably for the same cause. 

ened. For hardening, steel should be at a cherry-red heat, or 
much above the temperature of any of these metallic baths, 
which, besides, do not remain at the temperature first indicated, 
whether by oxidation or by some molecular changes. This has 
been observed many times in the " safety metallic plugs or 
plates" attached to steam boilers. 

Pure lead alone has been employed for heating certain deli- 
cate pieces of steel previous to hardening ; but for that, the 
temperature of the lead bath should be raised above the melting 
point, which will be best seen in a dark room. 

Hardened steel expands, as is well known by those who case 
harden finished pieces of machinery which fit close. Experi- 
ments by Captain Caron have shown that hammered bar steel 
will not extend in length, but will extend in the other directions. 
Rolled sheet steel and steel wire extend in all directions. 

We have seen that the molecules of hardened steel are in a 
state of extreme tension, often producing breaks in pieces of 
large dimension. To avoid this trouble, it has been proposed, 
and successfully tried, to compress or condense rapidly the 
heated piece by the hammer or otherwise, before plunging it 
into cold water. 

It seems to us that in regular and continuous operations, the 
ordinary forge-fire could be advantageously replaced by a gas 
fire, heating the piece directly, or in a muffle. For small objects 
and small workshops, illuminating gas might be employed. 
In larger establishments, some gas generating furnace on the 
principle of Siemen's gas furnace, could be devised. In all 
such apparatus, where the flow or the production of gas may be 
regulated at will, and when regulated, the heat is constant, 
there would be much more certainty and facility in ascertaining 
the proper temperature for hardening and tempering. There 
would be also economy. — Trans. 



236 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

381. The natural structure of iron is crystalline; 
it becomes fibrous only by artificial means, but re- 
turns to its former texture under certain conditions. 
Percussion at a cold temperature, vibrations, sudden 
cooling, even a protracted rest, cause the action of 
magnetism to which the confused crystallization of 
the metal is due. The natural state of carbon is a 
crystalline texture ; it is also essentially electro- 
negative. Doctor Lire has demonstrated that nesra- 
tive electricity produces immediately a crystalline 
arrangement: hence, we may infer that carbides of 
iron cannot have naturally a fibrous texture, and 
this explains how steel is always granular. 

382. Heat is also one powerful agent in changing 
the structure of iron; and if all pure metals, when 
melted, acquire a crystalline texture by cooling, 
they will become fibrous by being hammered when 
hot, and allowed to cool slowly after another heating. 

383. In hammered or tilted steel, the iron retains 
its property of becoming elongated under the action 
of the hammer; but this property is counteracted 
by carbon, whose tendency is to remain crystalline. 
However, if after having rendered it crystalline by 
hardening, the metal is reheated and allowed to cool 
slowly, it has a tendency to become fibrous and to 
acquire body and tenacity. 

384. This improvement in the tissue of steel has 
been made use of by practical metallurgists, who 



TEMPERING. 237 

after hardening, the immediate result of which is 
brittleness, reheat the metal and allow it to cool 
slowly, in order to give it body and fineness. 

This operation is termed tempering. The result 
of tempering is to remove part of the brittleness, 
and especially to graduate the hardness of the steel 
to the degree wanted, and to give it some elasticity. 

385. If, after a strong hardening, which will be 
the type of extreme hardness, steel is heated again 
to redness, it loses all the hardness it had gained, 
becomes soft, and will be rendered hard again only 
by a new hardening. 

Between these two extremes : hardness and soft- 
ness, there are several degrees which are as many 
shades of the qualities adapted to certain uses. 

386. These degrees are made apparent by the color 
of the metal when reheated, and take place in the 
following order: — 

1. Being put upon burning fuel, the steel gradual- 
ly heated becomes tarnished, yellow, and straw- yellow. 

2. The heat increasing, the color deepens, and 
reaches a gold yellow, full yellow. 

3. Afterwards, the steel takes several shades, 
rapidly following and blending with each other; 
they are purple, pigeon's throat, copper, brownpurple. 

4. These shades become deeper until they become 
violet. 

5. Afterwards, they pass rapidly to indigo blue, 
full blue, dark- blue. 



238 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

6. This color becomes weaker, and gives a shy 
blue more or less pure. 

7. The blue takes a greenish tint and produces 
shades which are gray and sea-green. 

8. At last, the steel reddens, and will no longer 
give distinct colors. 

The shades of these eight colors, which are called 
tempering colors, are perfectly distinct, very apparent, 
and easy to recognize ; but they take place only 
after hardening and on clean steel. The metal 
which has not been hardened, will not show these 
colors so plainly; the shades are mingled, blended, 
and less in number. 

387. The colors, during the tempering, are a sure 
guide for the workman, of the degree of hardness 
or tenacity he desires to obtain. Dark blue indicates 
a great tenacity, straw-yellow produces a greater 
hardness, and is the tempering shade for razors. 
Bistouries, lancets, penknives, erasing knives, some 
scissors, and generally blades requiring body, are 
reheated to full yellow. The strong blades for table 
knives, and gardening tools, are tempered to a brown 
or purple brown. Purple is the proper color for large 
shears. Yiolet and dark blue are for springs ; with 
a violet color, the spring will be very elastic but 
brittle, a blue shade will make it very resisting. It 
is very difficult to break a spring reheated to the 
color of water ; but its elasticity is a great deal 
lessened. 



TEMPERING. 239 

The temperatures (centigrade) corresponding to 
these colors, and best adapted to the tempering of 
various instruments are seen in the following 
table:— 1 

Lancets - 210°— 215° 

Other surgical instruments . . . 220 

Razors 225 

Penknives, erasers 230 — 235 

Scalpels, cold chisels for iron . . . 240 

Shears, sheep shears, gardening tools . 250 

Hatchets, axes, plane irons, pocket-knives 260 — 265 

Table knives, large scissors . . . 270 — 275 

Swords, watch springs .... 285 

Large springs, daggers, augers . . . 290 

Saws, some springs 310 — 315 

Various other instruments requiring less 

hardening ...... 320 

388. The hardened instruments are reheated in or 
upon a live fire, easily regulated, and without the 
help of bellows as far as practicable. An intelligent 
workman will cease blowing as soon as he perceives 
that the metal begins to change its color. 

The proper shade must come by itself without 
increasing the fire, and must be regular all over, 
before the piece is plunged into cold water. Some- 
times, this last dipping is omitted. 

The small pieces, such as penknives, erasing 
knives, &c, rest upon a wire cloth put into the middle 
of the fire ; when they have reached the proper 
color, they are cooled in water. 

1 See also paragraphs 378, 379. — Trans. 



'240 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

A lancet requires a special tempering : the shank 
must be blue ; from there the color will be first 
purple, next brown, and at the point, full yellow. 
These various shades upon one blade are a necessity, 
on account of the degree of hardness and tenacity 
required by this instrument. Full yellow will pro- 
duce the proper sharpness, but would not be suitable 
to the rest of the blade, which, instead of hardness, 
must have tenacity and elasticity. 

A good workman, willing to give the greatest 
perfection to an instrument, will be very careful 
when tempering it, in order to obtain the various 
shades which are necessary. A knife, for instance, 
must be brown purple at the cutting edge, purple in 
'the middle, and sea green at the back, to unite the 
hardness of the cutting edge with a certain amount 
of resistance which will prevent its breaking under 
a strain. 

This is obtained by using certain precautions, and 
above all, by not going beyond the proper degree, 
because it is very difficult to retrace the steps. If 
the fire is too strong or irregular, part of the edge 
may be purple brown, while the other is only straw- 
yellow ; then, by pinching the blade between red- 
hot tongues, at the place which should be more 
heated, the temperature rises rapidly, and the instru- 
ment is brought up to the proper tempering point. 

Certain scraping and burnishing tools, and steels 
for sharpening, do not require any tempering, be- 
cause they cannot be too hard. 






HAMMER HARDENING. 241 

It happens, though rarely, that steel bars which 
have been hardened and. left for some time in store 
rooms, will break with a noise, and. will project 
to a distance, pieces of steel from the corners. 
This phenomenon does not take place with small 
pieces, such as smooth or even bastard files, but will 
happen with large rubber files, mostly those of 
cemented steel. 

By hardening too quickly, the same effect is some- 
times produced; the workman receives a shock in 
his arm at the moment of dipping: part of the piece 
breaks off with a noise, or the steel splits along 
its length. 

VI. 
Hammer Hardening. 

389. Hammer hardening or cold hammering is in- 
jurious to ductile iron, which it renders granular 
and cold short. 



On the contrary, hammer hardening im- 
proves the carburized metal, by increasing its 
tenacity and hardness, and by producing elasticity 
and toughness. 

391. Hammer hardening a piece of steel should 
not be done too rapidly, otherwise the heat pro- 
duced would diminish the hardness. 
21 



242 TEEATISE ON STEEL. 

392. It often occurs that a thin piece of steel will 
become distorted or curved in the water, when hard- 
ened, and will retain that shape. The cause of this 
distortion is not well known ; but, if it is noticed 
that it is the more frequent as the blacksmith is the 
less skilful, we would attribute it to an irregular 
percussion, a bad hammering, and a wrong mode of 
working in the forge. 

893. Without any doubt, a bad hammer harden- 
ing is one of the most frequent causes of distortion. 
An irregular hammering produces unequal density 
and hardness in various parts of the piece of steel. 
By subsequent heating this piece extends unequally; 
and, when it is about to be plunged into water, it is 
already disposed to become twisted and distorted. 

We shall indicate in the chapter on files, how 
twisted and distorted steel may be straightened. 



PART FOURTH. 

PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND ITS USES. 



394. By giving here a general knowledge of the 
properties of steel, of its qualities, and of some of its 
uses, we do not pretend to describe all the uses to 
which this metal is, or may be applied. We shall 
restrict ourselves to some facts which may guide 
the workman in choosing and discerning the good 
from bad steel, in appreciating its resistance, and in 
avoiding certain accidents. Among the uses of steel, 
we shall dwell more fully on the important manu- 
facture of files. 

I. 

Characteristics of Steel. 

395. Steel may be distinguished from iron by 
means of diluted nitric acid. One drop of it upon 
steel will produce a stain of a dark gray color, while 
upon ductile iron the stain is greenish. 

396. The specific gravity of steel is too near that 
of iron (7.788) to be a distinct characteristic. Each 



244 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 



sort of steel has also its peculiar specific gravity, as 
may be seen by the following numbers: — 



Natural steel . 


. 7.500 


Huntsman's tilted steel 


. 7.900 


(Eregrund steel 


. 7.313 


Cast steel 


. 7.800 


Wootz (raw steel) . 


. 7.181 


" forged 


. 7.647 


" cast . 


. 7.200 



397. The coarsest kind of steel, the grains of which 
are the most marked, has a great tendency to take a 
fine granular texture by hammering. Let us take 
a steel of cementation with coarse grains, of a silver 
gray color, breaking without being previously 
notched ; if we flatten and smooth one end of the 
bar by a light hammering, and afterwards cut this 
part, we will be astonished to find it has acquired 
body, a fine granular and homogeneous texture, 
and a sky blue color or light gray. 

398. Puddled steel is perfectly crystalline; its 
grains are even finer than those of cemented steel. 
It is homogeneous in its fracture, very sonorous, and 
will take all the degrees of hardening and temper- 
ing; it possesses the same elasticity as ordinary 
steel, and may be transformed immediately into 
tools and large pieces of hardware, for which it 
seems exceedingly well adapted ; but it has not yet 
been used for fine cutlery. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL. 245 

399. Steel has sometimes such a near approach to 
iron that it has a tendency to take a fibrous texture. 
With puddled steel particularly, a bar may be beut 
when cold, and without breaking. If it is bent in 
the opposite direction it will show a fibrous texture. 
A piece of steel plate, notched with a chisel and 
broken, has a similar appearance at the fracture; 
but if it is forged, hardened, and tempered, the natu- 
ral crystalline texture will reappear. 

400. It might be useful to be able to compare the 
hardness of various commercial steels, or that of 
hardened instruments. The hardness being the re- 
sistance of the metal to scratching, polishing, or cut 
ting by a harder substance, this measure will be the 
strain necessary for cutting and scratching it. 

401. The softest hardened steel may be scratched 
by glass, the hardest steel can be scratched only by 
the diamond. Between these two extremes we may 
adopt four degrees of hardness, and ascertain them 
by certain substances, so chosen that the preceding 
one will be scratched by the following one. By 
trying to scratch with these types of hardness six 
different sorts of steel, it is easy to find out the 
proper number in the series, and to appreciate the 
comparative hardness of steel with quite a mathe- 
matical accuracv. 

21* 



2-1 6 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

402. These are the substances proposed in their 
order, or scale of hardness: — 

1. Glass. 

l 2. Feldspar adularia (subtranslucent). 

3. Quartz. 

4. Yellow topaz from Brazil. 

5. Corundum. 

6. Diamond. 

403. There are some sisms which should not be 

o 

overlooked by a workman when he chooses the bars 
of steel. The sound is one of the principal indica- 
tions ; when silver-like, vibrating, and protracted, it 
shows a good quality ; but when dull, hollow, and 
rapidly lost, it points to a want of homogeneousness. 
The fracture must present a fine round grain, easily 
seen, and with a lustre rather dull than shining. 
The finest steels have a white grain, difficult to be 
seen ; but they have less body, and will not endure 
many reheatings. Where the outer surface is smooth 
and well hammered, the texture is generally uni- 
form and homogeneous, although this outside indi- 
cation is not sufficient to prove a superior quality of 
steel. 

404. It is a mistake to believe that the finest steel 
is granular only, without fibres: its confused crystal- 
lization does not prevent the tissue from having a 
certain direction, generally in the way the drawing 
has been effected. Indeed, the cracks which take 



CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL. 247 

place in steel assume this direction. Therefore, it 
is a good precaution to consider this direction of the 
fibre when forging, not only when using steel of 
cementation, where a fibrous direction is generally 
perceived; but also, with a cast steel the grains of 
which can scarcely be perceived. 

405. A steel which welds easily is, with reason, 
preferred. This quality will be ascertained by heat- 
ing two pieces of the same bar and welding rapidly 
their "tapering scarfs." If, after forging, the faces 
are neat and without cracks, the steel is of good 
quality. 

Of course, we suppose that the blacksmith is skil- 
ful ; otherwise, it is very easy for an awkward one 
to burn the steel, especially when it is finely granular, 
and to render it impossible to weld or harsh. When 
the metal has been properly hammered, and after it 
has been heated to the welding point, if cracks again 
appear, the steel is harsh and hard to forge. This 
defect is seen in steels which, having been doubled, 
break at the bend. 

406. Soft or mild steel, after a welding heat, may 
be forged flat without further heating. By cooling 
under the hammer, it will not crack at the edges. 
If, after having been forged in this way, reheated to 
a dark red (blood-red heat), and plunged into water, 
it will bear cold hammering, bendi 



218 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

directions without cracking, its quality is perfect, 
and corresponds to that of a fine mild steel. 

407. Certain sorts of steel swell by the heat, boil 
and project sparks in the forge fire, producing at 
the same time a kind of hissing noise. By attempt- 
ing to forge them, they crack under the hammer, 
and are soon entirely broken. 

408. The hardness of the steel is also a quality 
which should be ascertained, with reference to its 
special use. It is possible, by hardening, to ascer- 
tain if this hardness is uniform, and, of course, if 
the whole tissue is homogeneous. 

For this purpose a bar of steel is put into the fire, 
and hammered at one end ft^j a length of 0.15 to 
0.18 metre. This portion is afterwards divided into 
six parts by notches made with a cold chisel, and 
penetrating one-fourth of the thickness of the steel. 
The bar is again put into the fire, heated gradually, 
in order to give a saffron color at the flattened end 
and a lesser temperature to the remainder, and 
then plunged into cold water, where the steel ac- 
quires various degrees of hardness. These degrees 
may then be ascertained, either with a file, which 
will give an approximate comparison, or with the 
substances we have indicated in the paragraph 402. 

409. After the trial of hardness, the same bar 
may be used for the trial of the texture. This is 



CHARACTEKISTICS OF STEEL. 249 

done by putting the bar of steel into a vice, and 
striking off with a hammer each of the notched 
parts. These being put along side of each other in 
the order they occupied on the bar, their fracture 
may be compared. It will be noticed that the grain 
will be the finer as the broken piece has been less 
heated. The lower the temperature of hardening, 
the finer is the grain. 

410. The quality of the steel, as regards welding, 
hardness, and fineness of the grain, may be ascer- 
tained by the following process: — 

A small bar of steel, not very thick, is welded 
upon a bar of iron having the same width but half 
the thickness. This iron is afterwards cut along its 
entire length down to the steel. 

The whole is then heated and hardened. By 
keeping the welded metals on the edge of an anvil, 
the iron up, and striking with a hammer, the steel 
is broken in the direction of the cut. An exami- 
nation of the fracture will show, at a glance, the 
texture, the grain, and the quality of the steel. 

411. We cannot afford here to ignore a phenome- 
non which, for a long time, has been considered 
either an error or a falsehood, which has tried the 
sagacity of practical metallurgists, and yet remains 
unexplained. 

412. According to Diodorus and Plutarch, the 
Celtiberians buried their steel in the ground, leaving 



250 TREATISE -ON STEEL. 

it there until it was strongly oxidized. From this 
steel, they forged swords and other weapons, the 
hardening of which was so perfect, that helmets and 
shields could be cut with them. 

413. The ancient cutlers of Sheffield, so celebrated 
for their products and the good quality of their in- 
struments, were also in the habit of burying in the 
mud of some stream or pool their bundles of steel, 
which remained there for several weeks. They 
affirmed that the metal, which had lost much in 
weight, had gained considerably in quality. When 
scissors manufacturers suspect that their steel is 
brittle, they bury it in their cellars; and they assert 
that it becomes more ductile and tenacious. 

414. In the new edition of the Manuel du Maitre 
de Forges, Paris, 1858, my father has recorded what 
happened to Mr. Weiss, a cutler of London, who 
having converted into steel the old iron of the piles 
of the city bridge, buried there for over a century, 
asserted that he had never since been able to find 
steel so fine and of such excellent quality. 

415. The trials made on the tensile strength of 
steel, that is, the resistance to tension in the direction 
of the length of the bars, give results varying greatly 
according as the metal is hardened or not. 

A strongly hardened steel has less tenacity than 
a steel which has not been hardened; but, if the b.tr 



CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL. 251 

has been properly tempered, its tenacity is a great 
deal superior to what could be expected, and is not 
in proportion to the tensile strength of steel hard- 
ened or not. 

Square bars of steel of 0.0062 metre a side, sub- 
mitted to traction, have given the following num- 
bers, which are the breaking weights per square 
millimetre: — 

Kilog. 

Ordinary steel not hardened . . . 73.96 
Middling " " " . - . . 84.92 

Very good " " " ... 81.49 

hardened and not tempered . 76.70 
" hardened and slightly tempered 102.72 

" hardened and more tempered . 92.45 

These experiments are due to Muschenbroeck. 
Others made by Rennie with square bars of 0.00635 
metre a side, have given, always by square milli- 
metre of section : — 

Cast-steel, tilted . . . 93.79 kilog. 
Cemented steel, tilted . . 92.93 " 
Forged steel, drawn . . 89.07 " 
Very possibly, the bars had not been hardened, 
although Rennie does not mention the fact. 

416. Tires for railroad wheels require a hard, 
compact, and uniform material. It must be hard, 
because there is greater resistance to wear; compact, 
because the wheel revolves with less friction and 
more facility ; uniform in its texture, because the 
wear should be regular. 



252 TEEATISB ON STEEL. 

417. These three conditions are not fulfilled with 
iron tires: the metal is not very hard, and softens 
by heat; it is not compact and homogeneous, presents 
parts which are soft and irregularly welded, and 
therefore, the wear is not uniform. 

Iron tires worn about 0.0022 to 0.0032 metre 
must be turned again ; and on account of the 
irregularity of the wear, the tool must remove a 
thickness of metal of about 0.0064 metre (6.4 milli- 
metres). 

418. Those of puddled steel are returned to the 
lathe, only when the wear is 0.0027 metre; the chips 
taken off, are 0.0055 metre thick. 

Cast steel tires are worn so regularly, that when 
repaired, only a thickness of 0.0038 metre is re- 
moved. 

Previous to repairing, i. e., when the wear is re- 
spectively of 0.0022, 0.0027 metre, the tire must 
have run : — 

Iron tire . . . 18,831 kilometres. 
Puddled steel tire . 40,487 " 

419. Considering the comparative duration of 
these different tires, the thickness they require in 
proportion to the material of which they are made, 
and the number of times they may be put upon the 
lathe, we find: — 

420. An iron tire is 0.050 to 0.0523 metre thick, 
and may be turned five times and worn six times. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL. 253 

421. A puddled steel tire is 0.039 to 0.040 metre 
tliick, and may be turned four times and worn six 
times. 

422. A cast steel tire of 0.0283 to 0.030 metre 
thickness, may be also returned to the lathe four 
times and worn five times. 

423. All things considered, we find that a tire, 
before it is put completely out of use, will have made 
runs : — 

Iron tire . . . 141,240 kilometres. 
Puddled steel tire . 202,435 " 

Cast steel tire . . 706,200 " 

424. The great elasticity of steel has been made 
use of for manufacturing horseshoes. 

The horny matter of the horse's foot, which is in 
immediate contact with the ground, has the property 
of contracting when the weight of the animal is upon 
it, and of expanding when the foot is raised. The 
ordinary iron shoes do not allow this elasticity, and 
the result is an incessant friction and the production 
of callosities, which very much impede, if not dis- 
able the animal. The ossification of the cartilagin- 
ous parts is the cause of great suffering, and some- 
times of premature old age. 

An English veterinary surgeon, Mr. Bracy Clark, 
reflecting that of all domestic animals, the horse suf- 
fers the most from diseases of the feet, and is also 
22 



25*4 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

the only one wearing a. shoe without expansion, sug- 
gested, therefore, the manufacturing of steel horse- 
shoes, called the steel tablet eximnsion shoe, and made 
of several plates of spring steel of proper thickness. 
After numerous trials and improvements, the in- 
ventor succeeded in producing horseshoes answer- 
ing the purpose very well. 

425. England, notwithstanding the quantity of its 
iron mines of all sorts and qualities, and the skill of 
its iron-masters, has not yet been able to manufac- 
ture a good blister steel with its own materials. The 
iron for its cementing works is imported from the 
North, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia. An enormous 
transportation trade with the North Sea has made 
Hull the great entrepot of the iron necessary to the 
steel works of the country. From this port a quan- 
tity of vessels of all dimensions distribute the metal 
in great quantity at New Castle, at Birmingham, and 
in smaller proportion at London; but the great bulk 
of it goes by canal to Sheffield, the centre of steel 
manufacture. 

426. A long use of the same products from certain 
iron works, and a confidence accruing from the uni- 
formity of certain products, uniformity which assists 
routine and indolence so well, have given such a 
preponderance to some works, that they rule the 
market and keep their iron at very high prices. 
These bars have marks peculiar to each works; but, 



CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL. 255 

although these marks are very numerous, the most 
prized are comparatively few, and are represented 
here in the order of their celebrity and true value: — 

Fig. 16. 
E (XjS (Hoop L), Danemora, in Sweden. 



CjL (GL). 



O^ (Double bullet). 
O 



£(GF). 
<UJ^> (Gridiron) 

\/ (Stein-Bu 



ck). 



1 (C and crown). 



C Cxi / l"~D (C C N D) Russian worksofDemi- 



e^i~p(ccN 



427. Sweden furnishes Europe with a large por- 
tion of the iron used in steel manufactures. The 



256 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

country where the iron works are situated occupies 
the centre of the kingdom, from the terminus of Nor- 
way to the Gulf of Bothnia; its limits north are 
determined by a line extending from Glommen to 
Soderham and crossing the Lake Siljan ; the limit 
south is the line of the 59° of latitude north. It 
comprises sixteen thousand square miles. The iron 
most esteemed for the manufacture of steel comes 
from Danemora, which mines are near Upsala. Eng- 
land imports from there 3000 tons of iron, which are 
employed at Sheffield and other manufacturing 
towns. The yearly production of Sweden is 70,000 
tons of bar iron. 

428. The irons of Demidoff have, for a long time, 
enjoyed a great reputation in English works; but 
their importation has greatly diminished since the 
death of the owner. This celebrated manufacturer 
died, a few years ago, in a duel with a German 
nobleman. It is said that his servant, having re- 
solved to avenge his master, pursued his adversary 
and killed him soon after the murder of his master. 

II. 

Files. 

429. Good files are made of steel, but it is readily 
understood that they have different qualities as they 
have different shapes. The best are those made 
from bars forged under the hammer, because the 
texture is more compact than when the metal has 



FLLE3. 257 

been rolled. For flat files the bar is drawn by per- 
cussion to the proper dimension and shape. This is 
easily done. After this drawing, the head forger 
and his helper take hold of the piece and dress it 
completely before the blank is separated. The 
hammer of the forger has a particular shape, like a 
truncated cone, the base of which is flat, and covers 
at each blow a large portion of the file, which ex- 
pands and is smoothed all at once. The hammer of 
the helper is large and heavy. 

430. Triangular and half round files are forged in 
a die, a kind of swage tool fixed in the anvil; or 
better yet, in rollers, the grooves of which corre- 
spond with the shape of the file. The finishing is 
done with the hand hammer, taking care to have 
the tang and the other end tapering regularly, parti- 
cularly with triangular files which terminate in a 
point. Eound files are made in a similar way, and 
small flat files are cut from steel plates. 

After this forging, and while the steel is yet soft, 
it is marked with a strongly hardened stamp. 

431. The next figure represents a small circular 
forge used at St. Etienne, specially for the manufac- 
ture of files: one is enough for shops of some mag- 
nitude. Its description will give an idea of the 
numerous advantages it presents. 

Standing in the middle of the workshop, its 
diameter is about 1.50 metre, and its height 0.80 
22* 



261 



TEEATISE ON STEEL. 



metre. The inside is spherical, and at the bottom 
some fire-bricks are so arranged that four, six, or 

Fig. 17. 




eight tuyere holes will receive the blast from a cen- 
tral and underground pipe, B. A conical mantle- 
piece of stout iron plate, lined inside with bricks, 
covers the forge fire, at a distance of 0.10 metre 
from the top edge. Strong iron bars attached to the 
girders, keep it, as well as the metallic flue on the 
top, suspended. 

The forge receives the blast from a ventilator, 
running continually during the working hours, and 
maintaining an intense heat. 

All around the brickwork A, is an iron railing, C, 
for supporting the tongs. These are sliding tongs, 
where the piece of steel (blank) remains fixed during 






FILES. 259 

the entire heating. By resting the tongs upon the 
railing and the brickwork, all the blank is exposed 
to the fire. 

The workman is able to watch the temperature 
without exceeding the proper degree of heat. The 
action of the air is less than in ordinary forge fires. 
There is more regularity in the manufacture, more 
economy of time, materials, fuel, and above all, a 
uniform and intense heat. 

432. The files must be annealed in the forge 
before cutting. We have given a few precepts for 
this annealing, which should not be mistaken for the 
tempering after hardening. For annealing, the 
blanks are piled up in a brick furnace having a fire 
underneath, and so built that an intense heat can 
reach all parts of the pile. The fire generally lasts 
twenty-four hours, and, during that time, it is kept 
as regular as possible. When the workman supposes 
that the blanks have softened enough, all apertures 
for air are closed, the pile is covered with hot ashes, 
and the whole allowed to cool. This method, which 
is generally employed, has the defect of not prevent- 
ing the oxidation which injures the steel. It is 
preferable to anneal the blanks in boxes or chests 
perfectly closed, which, it is true, will not be heated 
so rapidly, but will prevent all access of air. 

433. After this annealing, the blank is made clean 
and accurate by filiog (stripping), or grinding. The 



260 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

latter method is that most generally employed ; the 
former is in use only in a few places in Lancashire, 
where the long practice and the incontestable skill 
of the workmen give to the products of these works 
a true superiority. This explains why a process 
evidently more slow and costly, has been continued. 

434. The grinding of the blanks possesses the 
great advantage of being rapid, and of dressing 
sufficiently, if the grindstone is thick enough. At 
St. Etienne and Sheffield the grindstones receive 
their motion from small water powers. In small 
shops, the stones are made to revolve by hand or 
foot. This latter method, which is free from danger, 1 
is also more slow and costly. 

The file is presented flat or upon the side to the 
grindstone, which always turns towards the work- 
man. It is only at the last moment that the grinder 

1 Wm. Durham has computed that the velocity of an ordinary 
grindstone is one-fifth of that of a cannon-ball. Therefore, it 
often happens that fragments which burst from the surface are 
projected to a distance, wounding the men. Such accidents are 
generally attributed to centrifugal force ; but this explanation is 
far from being satisfactory, and does not explain the explosions 
which sometimes take place, breaking the grindstones into many 
pieces, killing men inside and outside the works, and throwing 
down parts of walls. There is something more than centrifugal 
force, which would not be over 80 metres per second, at a maxi- 
mum ; the violent explosion, the scattering in every direction, 
the complete breaking and pulverization of the grindstone, all 
would tend to attribute the phenomenon to a powerful force, 
electricity, for instance, developed by friction. 



FILES. 261 

is able to give the last finish and the proper uni- 
formity. 

435. After grinding, the blank is cut. The work- 
man, sitting upon a low bench, has the anvil between 
his knees. The blank is put upon a block of lead, 
and is firmly secured there with a leather strap 
pressed down with the foot. The workman then 
presents to the blank and at a certain angle, a small 
chisel, very hard, well sharpened and dressed, upon 
which he strikes with his hammer rapidly and uni- 
formly. The chisel, in moving, makes parallel and 
equidistant grooves. By practice, he preserves the 
three conditions of depth, parallelism, and equidis- 
tance. In this way are made the single cut files em- 
ployed for bronze, brass, copper, and other soft 
metals. 

For filing iron and hard metals, another cut is 
given to the file, by striking the chisel in a direction 
diagonal and oblique to the first indentations. The 
result is the double cut and the production of a quan- 
tity of sharp teeth. 

The files for wood or rasps are not cut with a wide 
chisel, and the indentations do not occupy all the 
width of the file. A triangular-pointed chisel struck 
obliquely to the face of the file, raises a small tooth 
at every blow. Their number and their height 
correspond to the fineness of the rasp and to the 
work it will have to perform. 



262 



TEEATISE ON STEEL. 



436. In various countries many attempts have been 
made to replace, by a regular machine, the uncer- 
tainty of manual labor. But none of these machines 
having been completely satisfactory, we will abstain 
from mentioning them, and also of a process by 
electricity, for which we obtained a patent in 1857. 

437. After cutting, the steel of the file is too soft; 
and in order to perfect the instrument, it must be 
hardened according to the principles already ex- 
plained. 

438. The heating furnace for hardening, seen in 
the next figure, is very primitive in its construction, 

Fig. 18. 




MWWWM lilWH 1 



llll« lir ''l m ||»llOillP H ' 



||||llll!IH!li!lii'i'| gm« 



I I 



' %> hi;,;.;,:; 




FILES. 263 

and might be advantageously modified. It consists 
of a fireplace where pit coal is employed, and of 
two or three tiers of muffles. The whole height is 2 
metres. The grate bars are 0.60 metre above the 
floor, and receive the fuel by a lateral opening, in front 
of which is a platform for the coal. This platform 
being a little above the grate bars, the workman has 
only to push the fuel, when the fire requires a fresh 
supply. 

439. The first tier of muffles is 0.40 metre above 
the grate bars; the other tiers are 0.15 metre distant 
from each other. The whole apparatus (ash pit 
and foundations excepted) is not over 1.50 metre 
high, so that the workman has no difficulty in 
watching the interior of his muffles. 

These muffles are so disposed, that the upper ones 
correspond to the empty spaces between the lower 
ones, as may be seen in the figure. The flame 
therefore, by raising, envelops every muffle alter- 
nately,' to the last. The depth of the furnace is 0.80 
metre; the front wall has round apertures left in it 
for receiving the muffles and removing them easily, 
in case of rupture. The back wall has also supports 
for them. 

The muffles are made of the same refractory clay 
used for casting crucibles, and require the same care 
in drying and annealing. Their length is 0.80 metre, 
which will vary with the dimensions of the furnace. 
Their diameters outside, and in the clear, are 0.12 



264 TEEAT1SE ON STEEL. 

and 0.09 metre, leaving a thickness of 0.015 metre. 
They are closed up with conical plugs having a 
hole at the top, in order that by inserting the tongs 
in it, the workman might remove and again replace 
them with great rapidity. 

440. The purpose of the muffles, in heating the 
files previous to hardening, is to protect them from 
contact with the air, thus preventing an oxidation and 
decarburization of the steel. We shall see hereafter 
that this is not the only precaution taken. Another 
advantage of this apparatus, is to allow the work- 
man not to exceed the color and the proper heat for 
hardening. He finds himself thus working under 
regular conditions ; his observations and operations 
are, therefore, marked by a constant regularity. 

Back of the workman, and leaving him only 1.20 
to 1.40 metre of free space, is a large trough about 
2 metres long, 0.60 metre wide and 0.60 metre deep, 
for the immersion of the files. Back of this trough, 
and parallel to its length, is an elevated bench upon 
which the workmen sit who make the dipping; their 
feet are level with the top of the trough. The water 
used is at about 28° C, and the temperature is kept 
at this point by the heat of the files, and by the cir- 
culation of the air. Therefore, the troughs must 
be of a certain size; were they too small, the dip- 
ping of the files would elevate too much the tempe- 
rature of the water, the hardening would be irregu- 
lar, and some files would be harder than others. It 



FILES. 265 

is precisely a constancy in the degree of hardening, 
which makes the reputation of the manufacturer. It 
would be more rational to keep the water at a certain 
degree of temperature by a supply of cold water, 
and the use of a thermometer ; but the custom is to 
leave to the judgment, and sometimes to the routine 
of the workman those operations, the importance of 
which should require all the attention of the master. 

441. The files which are to be hardened are 
smeared all over with a magma of soot and salt in 
the following proportions : — 

Soot 4 parts. 

Chloride of sodium (common salt) . 1 part. 

This mixture, with a sufficiency of water, is spread 
over tha files; the object being to protect them 
completely against the air already in the muffles, or 
that which might enter, each time that the work- 
man takes the plug out to watch the operation. 

In this case, the soot acts like charcoal in the 
cementation of iron ; it will return to steel the small 
quantity of carbon which may have been lost by 
an accidental oxidation. As for common salt, we 
understand its use only as the continuation of those 
secrets we have already mentioned. It may, how- 
ever, give more firmness to the covering; and, as a 
part of it will be transformed into carbonate of soda 1 

1 More likely silicate of soda ; the soot containing always 
some sand. — Trans. 

23 



266 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

with the help of the soot and of the heat, it will be 
useful in the scouring of the files, after hardening. 

442. The files, well covered with this paste, are 
carefully placed in the muffles, and the plug inserted. 
As soon as a cherry-red heat has been reached, the 
workman, with his tongs, turns the files upside down, 
exposing to the hottest parts of the muffle those 
which require most heat; and, as soon as the maxi- 
mum of cherry-red heat is obtained, each file is 
taken out separately by the head workman, who 
plunges it, about 1 inch, into the water, and delivers 
it with the tongs to his helper. The head man then 
takes another tongs and returns to the furnace, 
while the helper continues to dip the file slowly and 
gradually into the water down to three-fourths of 
its length ; at this moment the tongs is opened, and 
the file falls to the bottom of the trough. The tongs 
is then returned to the head workman, who hands 
another with a file in it. 

The important part of the hardening, is the degree 
of temperature of the file : if the muffle is at too 
dark a heat, the file will be soft ; if the heat is of 
too light a red, the steel becomes brittle, and the 
teeth break by the smallest strain ; a broken tooth 
causes the next one to break, and so on, until the 
file is shortly useless. The hardening should be 
such that the teeth will crumble partially instead 
of breaking off entirely ; there will always be a 
sharp angle left, which will abrade the piece to be 






FILES. 267 

filed, and the file will be serviceable even, when 
over one-third of each tooth has been worn off. 

443. The workman will ascertain the proper color 
of the piece much better when the light of the work- 
shop is not too bright, otherwise he would not be 
able to judge with certainty the degree of heat, even 
in the muffle, and would be liable to exceed the 
proper degree. At any rate, it is indispensable that 
the light should be equal, and, on that account the 
workshop should receive the light from the north. 
All these precautions seem of little moment by 
themselves, but they are parts of the success, and 
should not be neglected. 

444. It is evident that the success in hardening 
files depends entirely upon regularity in heating, and 
an equal temperature of the water. The difference 
in hardening is due to the difference between the re- 
spective temperatures of water and of the heated 
piece. The temperature of water is easily regu- 
lated. Therefore all the attention of the workman 
ought to bear on the proper color of the metallic 
piece; a practised eye and judgment have to make 
up for mathematical precision. This explains how 
difficult it is to find good help for hardening, and 
why this kind of work demands such high prices. 

445. The furnace for hardening which we have 
represented, employs a staff of two head men and 



268 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

three helpers. True it is, they are not constantly 
occupied there, and while the heating is going on, 
the helpers scour the files. 

446. The immersion of the files, one after the 
other, is done without haste, and the rapidity is in 
proportion to their temperature. By dipping too 
rapidly, the water boils by its contact with the file, 
and the hardness is less. In some cases this is enough 
to make it warp. On the other hand, all the body 
of the file must have sufficient time to cool uniformly ; 
therefore, it should not be removed too rapidly. If 
this happens, the corners of the file will be hardened 
properly, while the swell of the file will not be so. 

Generally, the steel becomes cleansed during the 
immersion ; a good color will appear when the steel 
is properly carburized and homogeneous. It may 
also present a similar shade when the difference of 
temperatures of water and steel is too considerable, 
when the immersion is too rapid, and when it has 
been forged too hot. 

447. We have shown in the chapter on hardening, 
that some pieces rather thin, after being taken out of 
the water, would warp and present in their length 
cracks, which are true breaks. This occurs fre- 
quently in hardening files. We have said also that 
this distortion was often due to the bad working of 
the blacksmith, and we gave as a proof that it rarely 
happens with skilful men. In regard to files, we may 



FILES. 269 

add that their annealing made at too high a tempera- 
ture is another cause of their distortion and break- 
ing. Some men also dip the file obliquely into the 
water, beginning by the point. If done too quickly, 
the piece of steel meeting some resistance from the 
water, has a tendency to bow and to warp. 

448. When a file is warped, there are several ways 
of straightening it again, which are employed accord- 
ing to the shape and the resistance of the file. Some- 
times the workman profits by the remaining heat to 
strike it gently with a wooden mallet until perfectly 
cooled. Sometimes the file is put upon a block of 
lead or of wood, the curved part above, and pressed 
down by the full weight of a man. In some cases, 
the file is squeezed in presses of various shapes, 
which, in some workshops, are on top of the reheat- 
ing furnace. 

449. The fine double cut files of French manu- 
facture are justly celebrated for the uniformity of 
their teeth and their fine cut. In this respect we 
are superior to our British friends ; but they work 
their coarse-cut files so well, that they are without 
rivals in Europe. Let us add also that their mate- 
rials are superior and better chosen than ours, and 
that many of our file manufacturers are of a remark- 
able bad faith. Not only are many files made of 
ductile iron, and case-hardened afterwards, but the 

23* 



270 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

bars are so imperfectly worked and drawn, that 
after a short use, furrows will appear and cause these 
files to be rejected. When will these French manu- 
facturers feel that it is as much to their dignity as 
to their interest to produce good articles, and to 
cease the manufacture of these goods for exportation, 
i. e., for deceiving foreigners ? Once deceived, they 
do not call again, and we complain of a decrease in 
our exportations! 

450. Although there is no instrument which re- 
quires in its use less dexterity than a file, it is rare 
to meet a good filer, combining what workmen call 
the eye and the hand. The secret 1 consists in laying 
the file so, that the surface of the filed piece be per- 
fectly level, without any of those irregularities left 
by an ordinary workman. Some machinists not 
only avoid making a convex surface, but also any 
concavity which might be expected from a stroke 
given in the direction of a circular segment; and 
this not only upon large pieces, but also upon small 
works which require a great nicety in their adjust- 
ment. AVhen very large pieces are to be filed, the 
surface is heated red, and a large file called afloat or 
rubber is worked by two men the same as a crosscut 
saw. Such files are nearly one metre long, and 
have handles at both ends. 

451. The files employed by locksmiths are gene- 

1 Is tins the "secret" or the "aim"? — Trans. 



FILES. 271 

rally double out. The rough work is done with 
bastard files, the finish with smooth ones. The latter 
are worked obliquely forwards and backwards. The 
finest files often require to be oiled, although oil 
prevents somewhat their take} With rasps oil 
should be avoided. 

452. A file should be of an uniform light gray 
color, and the end lighter still. To prevent the tang 
from breaking, it is strongly tempered in a lead-bath. 

453. The trial of a file in order to ascertain if it 
possesses the same degree of hardness in its whole 
length, is made upon a piece of hard steel (not hard- 
ened), and pressed in a vice. This plate of steel is 
about 0.008 metre thick for large files, and 0.005 
metre for small ones. The oxide of the surface is 
first removed with an old file; taking then a new 
one and laying it on the edge of the steel plate, it is 
drawn backwards lightly, and with a certain twist- 
ing motion. How the file "takes" is then felt, and 
also its hardness, by the resistance encountered. The 
same operation is performed at several points on the 

1 Certain essences, and among them, dead oil from coal tar, 
will make old files "take" as well as new ones, but will not do 
for smoothing. The best use of dead oil, notwithstanding its 
bad smell, is for taking the grease from files, pieces of machinery, 
&c. It is employed for this purpose on several French railways. 
Dead oil from coal tar is very cheap, and should be free, as much 
as possible, from naphthaline. — Trans. 



272 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

file; and then, by giving lightly a full stroke as if 
the steel plate was to be filed flat, the avidity of the 
teeth is ascertained. 

454. All files of a similar shape must give the 
same results at the trial, if their color is the same. 
A file of a gray color at the ends, and white at the 
bellied part, should be rejected, because the teeth 
would break rapidly at the white portion, which has 
been overheated. 

455. Half-round files are generally harder on the 
convex part than on the flat. This is due to the 
difference of cutting ; the spaces between the inden- 
tations, on the convex side, being less than that on 
the flat one, the cooling action of the water is more 
sudden. 

It often occurs that half-round files are of good 
quality on the flat and on four-fifths of the convex 
part, while the thickest part soon becomes bare, and 
may be filed off. This defect is due to a certain 
quantity of oxide left by the forger, which has not 
been removed by filing or grinding. 

456. The trial of bastard files requires a little 
more caution, because the indentations are finer and 
more delicate. The steel is generally of a better 
quality, has been dressed with more care, and is of 
a finer shade of color. 

However, some bastard files will be found harder 



FILES. 273 

on the edges than on the middle of the flat; in such 
case, the color is deeper in the centre than on the 
edges. This is due to an irregular heating. Some- 
times, the deeper color of the centre appears like a 
blackish vein ; it is iron fraudulently put in. When 
obliged to give back files weighing a certain propor- 
tion to the steel bars given to them, some workmen, 
in order to cover the loss, will make it good by adding 
to the files some of the iron employed for binding 
steel bars. 

457. Smooth files are tried in the same way upon 
the smaller of the two trial bars of steel. These 
files are apt to get injured in the trial, and it happens 
very often that when filing flat, one grain of hardened 
steel has become stuck in the trial bar, and produces 
a furrow in the whole length of the tool on trial. 1 

1 Before being ready for sale, the files pass through the ordeal 
of several washings in clear water, in order to dissolve all the 
salt which may remain upon them, a scouring with a brush and 
coke dust, a last washing in lime-water, drying, and, lastly, 
while yet hot, an oiling with olive oil mixed with a small quan- 
tity of turpentine. 

Instead of salt and soot, a paste, for covering the files previous 
to heating, may be made of beer grounds, salt, and damaged 
flour. Some persons add charred leather pulverized, or a small 
quantity of yellow prussiate of potassa, which is a very active 
carburizing reagent, and, therefore, should not be used with 
steels already highly carburized. The teeth would be too brittle. 
— Trans. 



274 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

III. 
Steel Wire. 

458. Steel wire draiving is exactly the same as iron 
wire drawing ; the only difference is in the nature 
of the materials, which, in this case, require more 
frequent annealings and a less velocity when passing 
through the draw-plates. 

459. The object of wire drawing is to reduce 
metallic bars to very small dimensions. Formerly, 
when the hammer alone was employed, the very fine 
sizes could not be obtained; however, wire fine 
enough for cards was made at a very high price. 
The rollers which took the place of the hammer, 
could only make round wire of 0.003 to 0.004 metre 
diameter, it being very difficult to have the two 
grooves to coincide perfectly. The invention of 
draw plates resolved the problem, and the remaining 
difficulty was to find out the proper means for hard- 
ening the holes, and for easily drawing the iron or 
steel rods, whose diameters exceed those of the holes 
in the draw-plate. 

460. In general, the draw-plates are made of hard- 
ened steel, supported against another strong plate 
of perforated iron. Their dimensions also vary with 
the calibre of the wire, and they have conical holes 
of gradually decreasing dimensions, the last being 
the finishing one. 



STEEL WIRE. 275 

461. These conical holes would be soon worn out 
if they were made of a soft material. To obviate 
this, a very hard steel is employed called Savage 
steel (acier sauvage), and made out of pig metal. It 
contains an excess of carbon. That the steel by 
drawing will become harsh, is not of much conse- 
quence, because it can always be annealed under a 
layer of clay. The holes of draw-plates are punched 
while hot, with punches of different diameters, on 
account of the conical shape of the hole. My father, 
in the Manuel du Maitre de Forges, thinks it would 
be a great deal better to drill these holes in the cold 
plate, which might thus be finished in one heat. 

462. Hardness, roundness of the holes, and pre- 
cision in the calibre, are the three conditions required 
by draw-plates. 

The hardness, besides the economy in the long 
wear of the conical holes, gives more regularity to 
the wire, and allows a more rapid drawing. A Mr. 
Brockeds or Brockedon had proposed to make the 
holes of diamond or other gems, and this could have 
been done, had not the price been so excessive. 
Recent trials in the manufacture of artificial gems, 
permits us to anticipate that in a few years it will be 
possible to employ them. With harder draw-plates, 
the wires will be more regular, and their fabrication 
less expensive. 

463. The wire coming from the rollers has its 
end hammered or filed to a point, in order to facili- 



276 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

tate its passage through the hole. It is then caught 
by a pair of nippers or dogs, and drawn by hand or 
by mechanical power. In the latter case the wire is 
attached to the circumference of a revolving reel, 
receiving its motion from the machinery. Another 
reel, on the other side of the draw-plate, supports 
the wire to be drawn. This disposition obviates the 
marks left by the dogs, and is altogether preferable 
in rapidity and regularity. 

The rapidity of motion of the reel is increased in 
proportion as the diameter of the wire decreases. 

464. It has been discovered that, when the wire 
has been covered with a very thin film of copper, 
such as might be produced by dipping it through a 
somewhat acid solution of a copper salt, it passes 
through the draw-plate with great facility. How- 
ever, the coating of copper does not long resist a 
succession of drawings and annealings. 

465. By passing through the draw-plate, the steel 
becomes brittle and hard. In order to give it some 
softness, it is annealed at a dark red heat. Iron 
wire must be drawn twenty-one times, and annealed 
four times; whereas steel wire must pass through 
twenty-four holes, and be annealed each time, before 
it is reduced to the size of a knitting needle. 

466. Steel wire also requires to be drawn more 
slowly than iron ; being harder, it offers more re- 



STEEL WIRE. 277 

sistance, and if the operation were performed too 
rapidly, it would break or lose its tenacity. 

467. When annealing steel wire, it is very diffi- 
cult to prevent some oxidation by which small scales 
are formed on the surface of the wire. These scales, 
being very hard, would be destructive to the draw- 
plates; therefore, they are removed in a pickling 
bath, or by striking the wire with a wet wooden mal- 
let. In some works, the coils of wire are plunged 
into a clay bath, dried and annealed. 

468. The annealing furnace is a kind of reverbe- 
ratory furnace, in the centre of which are cast or 
wrought iron bars, supporting the wire in the middle 
of the flame. This grate will receive about 300 
kilogrammes of wire. The annealing is always 
made on the same quantity of wires, without regard 
to their diameter, except that the larger ones are in 
the hottest part, and the whole equally heated at the 
same time. 

469. In the wire manufactory situated at Aigle, 
another apparatus is employed, and gives good re- 
sults. The furnace is cylindrical, 1.60 metre diame- 
ter, 2.80 metres high, and with a parabolical dome. 
The inside contains three horizontal grates; the 
middle one receives the fuel, and the l<3wer one is 
used as an ash-pit. The upper one carries a hollow 
annular cylinder made of two parts, put one within 

24 



278 TREATISE OX STEEL. 

the other and luted. The flame plays on the outer 
and inner sides, and the wire, put into the annular 
space, is protected against contact with the atmos- 
phere. The larger cylinder is 1.40 metre in diameter, 
the smaller, 1 metre only. 

These cylinders may be placed in or out of the 
furnace, at- will, and are carried upon iron rails. 
When one of these double cylinders is taken out of 
the furnace, it is replaced by a new one. 

Care should be taken not to open the cylinder 
immediately, because the steel wire is red hot, and 
would become oxidized. Each cylinder receives 125 
kilogrammes of wire. 

When all is cold, the wire is straightened by being 
rolled around another reel, or by blows from a 
wooden mallet, or upon a riddle. Lastly, its calibre 
is ascertained, in order to determine its commercial 
number. 

470. In the month of March, 1858, Mr. S. Fox 
took a patent for straightening, hardening, and tem- 
pering steel wire in one operation. 

He employs two horizontal furnaces, 1.60 to 2.80 
metres distant from each other, at the same level, 
and in a straight line. This allows three distinct 
places: that of the first furnace for heating the wire 
directly from the reel ; a space between the two fur- 
naces for the hardening trough ; and that of the 
second furnace for tempering the metal at a low 
temperature. 



STEEL WIRE. 279 

The bed of the first furnace is 1.10 to 1.40 metre 
long, and has, at its two extremities, two apertures 
for the passage of the wire. 

The second furnace is arranged similarly. The 
wire is unrolled from a reel near the first furnace, 
and wound upon another reel at the end of the second 
furnace. 

The wire passes through these apparatus, and is 
directed in its motion by three cast iron guides, 
having a length of 1.20 to 1.50 metre, a width and 
a height of a few centimetres. 

Each of these guides is made of two pieces, in 
which a certain number of parallel grooves have 
been cut for the passage of the wire, and that with 
such accuracy as to have them coincide, when the 
two pieces are brought together. 

One of these guides is put into each furnace, and 
projects out of the apertures for a length of 0.10 to 
0.15 metre. 

The third guide is put between the two others, 
and a supply of cold water runs through it. 

471. The three guides are on a straight line, and 
the operation is conducted as follows: — 

The wire, leaving the first reel, enters the first 
guide and becomes heated ; it is hardened in the 
second one, where cold water is running; and lastly, 
it is tempered to the proper degree in the third 
guide, which is moderately heated. 



280 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

472. This process has the advantage of straighten- 
ing the wire in much less time than by the ordinary 
method. The usual way consists in passing the wire 
upon a board {riddle) where pins sloping in opposite 
directions are fixed. By this zigzag friction, the 
opposite bends neutralize each other, and the wire 
becomes straightened. 

473. The qualities sought for in iron wire are 
ductility, extreme flexibility, and facility of being 
bent several times, in every direction, without break- 
ing or showing flaws. The conditions for steel wire 
are different; it must be tenacious, that is, able to 
resist, without breaking, a certain tensile strain; but 
also it must possess a certain elasticity, which is 
found principally in hard steel. 

474. The callipers or gauges employed for measur- 
ing the diameters of metallic wires are not uniform 
in every country; each manufacturer has his own 
peculiar gauges. 

475. We have already said that the conical holes 
of the draw-plates were punched or drilled. These 
two operations leave the inner surface too rough for 
neat working. Therefore, it is proper to smooth the 
holes, by presenting both sides of the draw-plate to 
a brass cone or grinder fixed on the spindle of a 
small lathe. The abrading powder is emery, &c. 
The ridge produced should be without sharp angles, 



STEEL WIEE. 281 

and nearer the side on which the metal enters. The 
principle of drawing does not consist in scraping, 
but in pushing the metal back as in a wave. 

In order to reduce the friction and to leave a 
•smooth and finished surface on the wire, certain 
lubricating substances are sometimes employed, such 
as beer grounds, starch and water, &c. 

476. The uses of steel wire are many ; but their 
principal employment is for the manufacture of 
needles, and of fluted or grooved wires. 

Grooved wires are used for several purposes, 
among them the inclosing of spectacle glasses. 
Fluted or pinion wires are drawn through a certain 
number of holes, and annealed each time; but the 
last drawing is made through a carefully made draw- 
plate, in order that the wire may have, in its whole 
length, a certain number of ridges and furrows rep- 
resenting the cogs of a wheel, when the wire is trans- 
versely cut. The hardening is done only when the 
piece is entirely finished and fitted. 

477. Watch springs are made of steel wire, flat- 
tened between rolls or by the hammer, and finished 
upon a grindstone. They are hardened afterwards, 
and tempered blue. The labor and the numerous 
operations to which this little product has been 
submitted, enhance its value to a surprising degree : 
half a kilogramme of iron, which scarcely costs three 

24* 



282 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

cents, produces 700,000 springs, worth over 90,000 
francs ($18,000). 

478. For a long time, Prussia has controlled the 
manufacture of steel wires for musical instruments. 
This may be due to the antiquity of the wire drawing 
industry in Germany, the first and best improve- 
ments having been made in that country. Historians 
assert that the first wire drawing bench was made at 
Nuremberg, by Rudolf, who also invented the pliers. 

IV. 
Needles. 

479. The steel wire employed in the manufacture 
of needles must be of excellent quality, very hard 
and flexible ; after being hardened it must break 
readily, without bending, between the fingers. Its 
diameter must be uniform and assorted to the sizes 
of needles. 

480. The wire is cut with strong hand shears in 
lengths sufficient for two needles. A certain num- 
ber of these pieces make a cylindrical package of 
about 0.10 metre in diameter, inclosed in two strong 
iron rings. After heating on a shelf, it is rubbed 
upon a block of cast iron with a tool called a smooth 
file. This tool is like a curved gridiron with only 
three bars, the iron rings or hoops of the package 
passing through the openings left between the three 
bars. By a forward and backward motion the steel 



NEEDLES. 283 

wires are straightened, and the operation is termed 
rubbing. 

481. The wires are afterwards ground at both 
ends, upon a grindstone revolving with great rapidity. 
The grinder takes one or two dozen of these pieces, 
spreads them like a fan, and rolling them upon the 
stone with one of his fingers, protected by a thumb- 
piece of leather, points both extremities. During 
the grinding small particles of steel and stone dust 
fly all over the shop, and enter the throat and lungs 
of the workman, producing a dangerous sickness 
called grinder's asthma. Many contrivances have 
been tried for preventing this, such as covering the 
stone with a woollen cloth, where the metallic dust 
becomes fixed ; a wet cloth upon the nostrils and the 
mouth of the grinder ; a metallic mask. But the 
workman is always and everywhere the same; any 
preservative is considered by him as a restraint, 
which he does not care to use, and avoids. The best 
way is to do without his participation, and to force 
him to retain good health against his will. This may 
be effected by some magnetic sieve which will re- 
tain the metallic dust as soon as produced. 1 

1 Metallic dust is not the only dust to be avoided ; tliat of 
the grindstone is equally noxious. The apparatus which seems 
to resolve more satisfactorily the problem is a box inclosing the 
greatest part of the grindstone, and communicating by a wooden 
trough with a powerful aspirator. The grinder retains thus fall 
liberty of action for his hands, and also of breathing, and of 
seeincr. — Trans. 



284 TKEATISE ON STEEL. 

482. After pointing, the wire is cut in two, each 
portion being the length of a needle, put into wooden 
or iron boxes, and delivered to the head flattener. 

483. This workman takes a certain quantity of 
the pointed wires, spreads them like a fan (the points 
being between the thumb and forefinger), and rest- 
ing the heads upon a small anvil of polished steel, 
flattens them by a smart tap of a hammer. In most 
needle works the operation of piercing the eyes is en- 
trusted to women, whose lighter hands are better 
adapted to that kind of work. The flattened head 
is put upon a small steel anvil fixed upon her bench, 
and struck on both sides with a small punch. The 
substance is only bulged out, and is entirely removed 
by punching the head again upon a block of lead. 
This operation is done by boys. 

484. We must not forget that flattening the head 
has rendered the metal very brittle, and unfit for 
piercing the eye, before the needle has been annealed 
in a peculiar furnace. 

To be certain that nothing remains in the eye, 
another child punches it again upon a block of lead, 
and after that, upon a steel anvil. 

485. The next operations are making the groove, 
and trimming the head. The needle is fixed in slid- 
ing pincers and laid fiat upon a block of wood. Then 
a small groove is filed both ways of the eye, in the 



NEEDLES. 285 

direction of the needle. With another file the head 
is rounded and smoothed. 

486. In some manufactories the eyes and the 
groove are made at the same time by a stamping 
machine. With this machine 10,000 needles may be 
pierced in one day, while only 1500 are pierced by 
the hand method. 

When piercing by machine, the wires of the 
length of two needles are not cut. The middle of 
the wire rests upon a raised die, while the counter- 
part is attached to the falling weight. Therefore, 
the heads are stamped, both sides at once. The 
place for the eyes has only been marked out; for re- 
moving the metal, the wire is put under a hand-press 
having two punches, which pierce the eyes at one 
stroke. 

When the eyes have been pierced, small wires are 
passed through {needles spitted on fine ivires), and the 
whole appearance is that of a comb. For separating 
the heads, the pointed ends are fixed in a wooden 
hand-vice, and the burr produced by stamping is 
filed off on both sides. A small pressure will then 
separate the two rows. 

The last trimming is made by hand and file. 

487. During the operations of flattening the head, 
making the groove, and piercing the eyes, the needles 
have almost always been curved. They are straight- 



286 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

ened by rolling them upon a block of polished 
metal. 

488. At the end of all these manipulations, the 
needles are gathered and inspected by the foreman, 
who rejects the imperfect ones, and pays the men 
according to the weight of the good ones. 

489. The next operation is the hardening. Several 
thousands of needles are put into a cast iron tray, 
and covered with ashes, in order to prevent oxida- 
tion. The tray is then carried into a kind of 
reverberatory furnace, where it is submitted to a 
cherry-red heat. This temperature is most conve- 
nient for large needles, but the finer ones must be 
taken out before this degree is reached. When at 
the proper point, they are thrown into a tub of 
water, taking care they should not all fall at once, 
but one after the other, as much as possible. 

490. The hardened needles are very brittle, and 
require tempering in order to retain some elasticity. 
This is done upon a plate of iron, heated nearly red 
hot by a fire underneath. The needles are placed in 
parallel lines, and constantly moved with small 
pincers or shovels, until a regular blue color has 
been imparted. They are then removed. 

During the tempering, they have warped : there- 
fore, they need straightening, which is done, one by 



NEEDLES. 287 

one, upon a small anvil, and by gentle taps of the 
hammer. After that, they are polished and scoured. 

491. For this operation, emery, rotten stone, soft 
soap, and oil are employed. 

A layer of the abrading materials is spread over 
several strips of canvas ; on top is a thicker layer of 
needles, and so on, until five or six of such alternate 
layers have been piled up, when some oil is spread 
over the whole. The pieces of canvas are then 
rolled, in order to form a bundle which is fastened 
all around and at the ends by strong twine. Each 
bundle holds from 40,000 to 50,000 needles. 

When a certain number of these bundles have 
been prepared, they are put between horizontal 
rollers, made of wooden troughs loaded with weights, 
and to which a forward and backward motion is 
imparted by some machinery. It is necessary to 
regulate their motion, in order to prevent heating, 
which would destroy the hardness of the needles. 
Generally, these rollers move ten to twelve times in 
a minute. 

The polishing lasts from one and a half to two 
days, and the needles come out covered with a black, 
thick, and greasy mixture, which must be scoured 
off. 

492. This last manipulation is effected in cylin- 
drical drums revolving on their axles, and partially 
filled with sawdust. The needles are thrown pell- 



288 TEEATISE ON STEEL. 

mell into it, and after a certain time, are removed, 
and winnowed in a copper basin. New polishing 
bundles are formed, rolled for eighteen hours, and 
again scoured. When the needles appear to be 
sufficiently polished, the last bundle is smeared only 
with oil, and remains five to six hours in the polish- 
ing mill. 

493. The last scouring, in order to remove the 
oil, is made by forming new bundles with alternate 
layers of needles and bran, without emery. After 
remaining for a few hours under the rolling tables 
or troughs, they pass to the drum, and are winnowed. 
At last, they are wiped dry, one by one, with a rag. 

494. During the polishing, ten per cent, of the 
needles, on an average, have lost their points, or 
have been entirely broken ; two to five per cent, have 
been bent, and must be straightened. The separation 
and the sorting of the needles according to their 
size, is the last operation of all. 

495. This manipulation, which is done by chil- 
dren, with remarkable dexterity, consists in shifting 
to one side all the heads, in separating the needles 
of different sizes, and in removing the imperfect 
ones. 

The needles are put flat upon a table, and a dozen 
of them are rolled with the forefinger of the left 
hand, while the forefinger of the right hand, covered 



NEEDLES. 289 

with a piece of rag, presses against the extremity of 
the needles. The pointed ends stick to the rag, and 
are carried to the left side. The heads are then 
shifted to the right side. Every motion of the finger 
piece carries with it half a dozen needles. 

496. The eyes of the first quality of needles are 
sometimes drilled, in order to smooth the rough 
edges. The insertion of the thread is made more 
easy, and its cutting prevented. 

497. The last operation, performed only on needles 
of the first quality, is a polishing upon a blue or hone 
stone, or buff leather. The points are sharper, and 
the polishing is perfect. 

The needles, in quantities of twenty-five, fifty, or 
one hundred, are then wrapped in a paper especially 
made for the purpose, and which does not allow any 
dampness to penetrate. The packages are stamped 
with the mark and name of the manufacturer. 

498. Yery inferior needles are made of iron, instead 
of steel wire, and cemented afterwards in crucibles or 
boxes, by a process similar to those we have described 
for cementing and case hardening. The cementation 
is watched by means of trial wires, and the operation 
is ended when the wire, plunged into water, is clean 
and breaks easily. 

499. Needles with gilt heads are made by dip- 
25 



290 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

ping the eye into a solution of chloride of gold in 
ether. The gold is precipitated immediately, and 
becomes fixed upon the steel. Sometimes the whole 
needle is - plunged into the liquid, and will no longer 
be subject to oxidation. 



Steel Plate. 

500. Steel may be rolled into sheets of variable 
thickness by a series of operations similar to those 
employed in making sheet iron. At present, cast- 
steel and steel of cementation well tilted are the 
only materials used ; but there is no doubt that it 
will be possible to roll into plates natural steel, and 
steel from pig iron. The principal condition is, that 
the metal should be perfectly homogeneous, compact, 
resisting, elastic, and without flaws or cracks. In 
all these respects cast steel is pre-eminent. 

Boiling steel plate requires a greater mechanical 
power than a similar operation with iron, because 
steel, being unable to bear as much heat, offers more 
resistance than iron. 

501. The alternate use of hammers and rolls is 
necessary in making steel plates. The former tools 
are more particularly employed for preparing the 
steel slabs; the latter are preferable for extending 
and polishing. 



STEEL PLATE. 291 

502. When steel of cementation is employed, it is 
drawn into flat bars in the rolling mill, or under the 
hammer. These bars are then cut into pieces, the 
same as in working iron, piled up, reheated, and 
drawn again under a heavy hammer or between 
rollers. 

503. The bundle or fagot of cemented steel is not 
drawn in one operation. A first slab is made and 
the remainder of the bundle is heated and drawn 
again, thus making the second slab. Both slabs are 
then cut out, piled up, reheated, doubled, &c. 

504. It is important that the hammer should fall 
plumb upon the anvil, in order that the shock should 
be felt all over the surface, and not on a particular 
point. A hammer for steel plate weighs 200 to 225 
kilogrammes, and its fall is 0.95 to 1 metre. 

505. Not only does steel require for its working 
powerful forge tools, but it is also important that 
the shocks should be graduated according to the 
wants. Steam hammers are, therefore, exceedingly 
well adapted to the working of steel. 

506. In the manufacture of steel plates no rever- 
beratory furnaces are employed. As far as practic- 
able the metal is kept in an atmosphere of carbonic 
oxide. This is the proper way to retain the quality 
and the elasticity of steel. 



292 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

507. The furnaces employed for reheating slabs, 
doublings, bundles, and plates, have no stack or 
chimney proper. A grate takes the place of the 
bed, and an arch covers the whole. The smoke 
issues through the working door and escapes by a 
metallic flue, funnel-shaped. The metallic pieces rest 
upon 'the fuel of the grate, and are sometimes cov- 
ered over with burning coke or charcoal. 

508. The slabs which have been doubled and re- 
heated are drawn in the rolling mill. 

509. The rolls are made of chilled cast iron, that 
is, of metal run into a mould of wet sand, which has 
the effect of producing a sudden cooling, or rather a 
hardening of the metal, extending as far as 0.02 to 
0.03 metre from its surface, which is therefore white 
and very hard. The frame carrying the rolls is 
itself massive, and is provided with counterweights 
which prevent the rolls from touching each other, 
in order to avoid injury when the laminated plate is 
out. In front of the rolling mill, is an iron platform, 
somewhat above the space between the rolls, and 
which supports the plates to be drawn. 

510. In some steel works the slabs are roughened 
in a particular mill, somewhat similar to the rough- 
ing down rolls used in iron forges. The rough edges 
of the extended metal are again cut by strong shears, 
piled up, reheated, drawn, doubled, and so on, until 
the plate has reached the proper dimensions. 



STEEL PLATE. 298 

511. A certain amount of care and prudence is 
necessary for rolling. The distance between the 
rolls must be gradually diminished by turning the 
screws after each passage of the plate. 

512. In order to prevent a decarburization of the 
steel, the slabs or plates receive a coating of clay, 
before they are reheated. 

513. But, previously to this coating of clay, the 
metal has been deprived of its oxide by blows of a 
hammer ; without this precaution, the crust of oxide 
would be impressed upon the metal. The opera- 
tions of doubling and heating should not be too 
frequent. The doubled plates have the bend pre- 
sented first to the rolls. The aim should be to give 
the proper width at the beginning, in order, after- 
wards, to draw only in the direction of the length. 

514. The last rolling but one is to be made at a 
cherry-red heat. Immediately after the plate has 
left the rolls, it is dipped vertically into cold water. 
Another annealing and a last cold drawing finish 
the operation. 

515. The rolls for steel plates are smaller than 
those for iron. However, large steel plates are em- 
ployed at present in England ; therefore, the rolls 
should be of sufficient length and of a corresponding 
weight. Generally, a train of two pairs of rolls is 

25* 



294 TREATISE ON STEEL. 

employed : one for laminating the slabs simple or 
doubled, and making 25 to 30 revolutions in one 
minute ; the other for the plates, and particularly 
the thin ones, revolves 40 times. 

A complete system of mills for steel plate requires 
machinery equal to 70 or 80 horse-power. 

516. For over -two and a half centuries, steel plate 
has been employed for engraving, whether with the 
steel graver, or with aqua fortis (etching). The trials 
by Albert Diirer go back as far as 1510 : this is the 
date of one of the four plates of this celebrated 
artist, etched with aqua fortis, which are kept at the 
British museum. Since that time, numerous and 
often useless attempts have been made for improving 
this cheap process of reproduction. It is only after 
the lapse of two centuries, at the beginning of the 
nineteenth, that the process has become certain and 
practical. 

The principal advantage of steel over copper 
plates, is that of allowing of the printing of more 
copies in the press. Steel plates last comparatively 
much longer; but we must not conclude with doctor 
Lardner, 1 that a plate of decarburized and soft steel, 
that is, converted into iron, will be able to furnish 
several millions of copies. It is an exaggeration of 

1 A Treatise on the Progressive Improvement and Present State of 
the Manufactures in Metal, translated by Mr. A. D. Vergnaud 
under the title of Manuel Complet du Travail des Mdtaupp, 
Collection Roret. 



saws. 295 

this savant which we are astonished to see reproduced 
by his translator. 

517. According to the same doctor, the process of 
engraving upon steel would be as follows: 1. De- 
carburization of the steel ; 2. Engraving upon the 
softened plate ; 3. Carburization of the steel by 
cementation in a closed vessel. 

Is it not evident, in this case, that it would be 
much simpler to engrave on a plate of pure iron, 
which could be cemented afterwards? 

This is not the proper place for discussing the 
cabinet metallurgy of writers who make books with 
other books, and keep up false ideas without taking 
the trouble to verify them. Let us say at once, that 
the engravers use plates of polished steel, as they 
come from the mills, and without any previous or 
subsequent operation. 

VI. ' 
Saws. 

518. Saws are made of cemented tilted steel, or 
better, of cast-steel. 

519. The steel is first drawn into slabs by pro- 
cesses similar to those we have described for steel 
plates, and when the slabs have been laminated to 
the proper thickness, they are clipped with lever- 
hand shears. The edges are ground true upon a 



296 



TREATISE ON STEEL. 



grindstone, and the piece is ready for the next 
operation. 

520. The teeth are cut out by a steel punch, acting 
vertically under the impulsion of a fly press, similar 
to those employed for stamping. At each turn, one 
or several teeth are cut out, and the saw, which 
stands horizontally upon a steel rest, is shifted ac- 
cordingly. The distance of the teeth is regulated 
by a gauge falling into the tooth. 

521. It will readily be understood that the dimen- 
sions and the shape of the teeth vary with the work 
required of the saws. In some saw-mills, the form 
is that of a rectangular triangle ; pit-saws have their 
teeth cut so as to attack the wooden fibres at a sharp 
angle ; hand-saws, and, generally, all those used in 
carpenter work, have teeth of an intermediate shape. 

After punching, the teeth are finished with a file, 
and the irregularities are ground off. 



522. After these operations, the steel is to be 
heated and hardened. This manipulation requires 
judgment and practice, because the saws do not re- 
quire strong hardening. The fullest amount of 
elasticity is to be retained ; therefore, the tempera- 
ture of the heated piece should not be too high 
comparatively with that of the dipping liquid. 

523. The saw is put flat into a furnace, and there 



saws. 297 

heated to a certain point, taught by practice. Im- 
mediately after the proper degree has been attained, 
it is plunged into a bath of linseed oil, cold or slightly 
heated. Generally, two dipping troughs are at hand, 
in order to cool any which have had their tempera- 
ture raised too much. 

Every manufacturer possesses a secret for the 
composition of the hardening liquid, which he care- 
fully keeps; but the basis is oil, which, when cold, 
imparts the proper hardening to the instruments 
requiring a great elasticity; some persons add tallow, 
rosin, and other fatty matters. 

524. The saw having been taken from the bath, 
most of the fatty matters remaining on it are wiped 
off; what remains will burn in the fire during the 
tempering. For this purpose, the saw is put upon 
a coke fire and constantly moved until the grease 
takes fire; it is the blazing off. It is then withdrawn, 
and straightened while it is hot. 

525. The straightener takes hold of the saw with 
his left hand, and resting it upon a polished anvil, 
strikes it in every direction with a small hammer. 
The shrill noise produced is exceedingly disagreea- 
ble. By this manipulation the saw becomes homo- 
geneous and perfectly elastic. The straightener 
must be a skilful and experienced workman, for he 
must determine where his hammer has to fall by the 
noise of the vibrating plate. 



298 



TREATiSE ON STEEL. 



526. The next operation is the planishing, upon 
stones of a large diameter (1.50 to 2 metres diame- 
ter, and 0.25 to 0.30 metre thickness). The piece 
of steel is too thin and too wide to be planished with 
the hand like a knife ; it is, therefore, stretched in 
an iron or wooden frame connected with the grind- 
stone, in such a way as to allow the saw to be ground 
in every direction, until it is regularly planished and 
polished. The largest saws are suspended to the 
ceiling by swing rests. 



527. The planishing destroys most of the stiffness 
of the saw. It is, therefore, necessary to restore 
this quality by another hammering made as before. 
The saw becomes elastic by a new annealing, after 
which it is finally polished upon a hard stone and 
buff-leather. 



APPENDIX 



EXTEACTS FROM THE REPORT ON THE PARIS 
UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 18G7. 

By ABRAM S. HEWITT, United States Commissioner. 



BESSEMER STEEL. 

Paris, June 22, 1867. 
To the Commissioners of the United States for the Univer- 
sal Exposition of 1867 : — 

The undersigned has the honor to submit a special re- 
port upon " Bessemer Steel," prepared under his direc- 
tion by Frederick J. Slade, scientific assistant to Com- 
mittee No. 6, and duly approved by the committee and 
ordered to be laid before the commission. 

ABRAM S. HEWITT, 
U. S. Commissioner and Chairman of Committee No. 6. 

The Bessemer Process. 

The Paris Exposition affords valuable information in 
reference to the capabilities of the Bessemer process for 
the production of all grades of metal, from a near approach 
to wrought iron to the hardest and finest kinds of steel. 
A comparison of the specimens sent from the various 
countries shows that the quality of the metal produced 
depends chiefly upon the nature of the raw materials used, 
and accordingly it is only in those countries where the 
very best ores and purest coals are employed that we find 
the finer grades of steel produced. 



300 



APPENLIX. 



It will, perhaps, be most instructive, therefore, to exa- 
mine the manner in which this process is conducted in 
each country separately, and to trace, if possible, the re- 
lation between the nature of the finished products and the 
materials and modes of working employed in their manu- 
facture. We begin naturally with 

ENGLAND. 

The iron almost exclusively employed in England for 
the pneumatic process is obtained from the Cumberland 
district, and is derived from red hematite ores. Dr. 
Percy, in his well-known work on metallurgy, gives as 
the analysis of two specimens of these ores : — 

Sesquioxide of iron 
Protoxide of manganese 
Alumina 
Lime . 
Magnesia 
Phosphoric acid 
Sulphuric acid 
Bisulphide of iron 
Ignited insoluble residue 



I. 


II. 


95.16 


90.36 


0.24 


0.10 




0.37 


0.07 


0.71 




0. Ob- 


trace 


trace 


trace 


trace 


trace 


0.06 


5.68 


8.54 





101.15 


100.26 








Silica 

Alumina ..... 
Sesquioxide of iron 
Lime . . . 


. 5.66 
0.06 


7.05 

1.06 

0.19 

trace 


Iron, total amount 


5.72 
. Cj(j 60 


8.30 
63.25 









The blast furnaces in which these ores are smelted 
average about fifty feet in height and fifteen feet diameter 
of boshes, and are in most cases open-topped, the opinion 
among the iron-masters being that the quality of the iron 
is injured by any attempt to draw off the gas. At some 
furnaces, however, this notion is abrogated, and the waste 
gases are utilized for heating the blast. Among these are 



BESSEMER STEEL. 301 

the furnaces of the Barrow Hematite Iron and Steel 
Company, the West Cumberland, and the Wigan Iron 
and Coal Company's furnaces. The quality of pig pro- 
duced at these latter works does not perhaps stand in- 
variably as high as that of the "Whitehaven Hematite Iron 
Company (Cleator), the Workington Iron Company, or 
the Harrington, but if there is a difference it is easily ac- 
counted for by the quality of the materials used, without 
the necessity of resort to the supposition of an injurious 
effect from utilizing the escaping gas. 

The fuel used at the furnaces in the Cumberland dis- 
trict is the best Newcastle coke, which is remarkable fur 
its hardness and freedom from sulphur. Dr. Percy gives 
the percentage of sulphur as 0.8, and of ash 4.45. No 
charcoal pig is made in England for the Bessemer pro- 
cess. The fluxes employed are a limestone quite free 
from phosphorus, and a portion of black shale from the 
coal beds, consisting of clay and carbonaceous matter, 
without any appreciable amount of sulphur. The per- 
centage of iron indicated by the above analysis, viz., 
from 60 to TO, appears to be a fair average, and the- ores 
are not calcined. As it is necessary that the iron should 
be as gray as possible, not less than thirty hundred-weight 
of coke are used per ton of iron produced, and a charge 
is about fifty hours in coming down through a furnace of 
the dimensions given above. The yield from such a fur- 
nace is 250 tons per week. 

The blast is under a pressure of three and three-fourths 
pounds, and is heated to from 650° to 750° Fahrenheit. 
From four to six tuyeres are usually employed. No. 1 
iron for the Bessemer process from these furnaces brings 
ninety shillings per ton at the works, and No. 2 ten shil- 
lings per ton less. 

The Wigan Iron and Coal Company, Lancashire, pro- 
duce an iron which is used to a considerable extent for 
the process, but does not rank as high as the Cumber- 
land irons. The coal as mined would be quite unfit for 
use in the production of such a grade of iron, as it is 
materially contaminated with sulphur, but this is almost 
26 



302 



APPENDIX. 



entirely removed by washing the fine coal, the pyrites 
settling by their superior weight, while the pure coal is 
carried on to receiving beds by the current of water, and 
the purified residuum is then converted into coke, yield- 
ing a tolerably strong product. This company have just 
erected a number of new furnaces much above the usual 
size for this kind of iron, viz., eighty feet high and twenty- 
four feet diameter of boshes, and these are provided with 
a cone and bell arrangement for taking off the gas. 

Forest of Dean iron, made from brown hematite ores, 
is frequently used in small quantities in admixture with 
other irons for the purpose of maintaining the heat of the 
charge, which it tends to do. It is apt, however, to con- 
tain too large a percentage of sulphur to work well alone. 

Another brand which is said to work well is Weardale, 
an iron made from spathic ores. It is unusually rich in 
manganese, and owes its excellence chiefly to that fact. 

The following analyses exhibit the characteristics of 
some of the more usual brands of iron employed : — 



Carbon (graphitic) 
Silicon .... 
Sulphur .... 
Phosphorus . . 
Manganese . . . 




Workington. 


Weardale. 


3.14 


3.24 


3.12 


1.80 


0.05 


0.04 


0.03 


0.19 


0.02 


1.45 



Forest of Dean. 



3.25 
1.36 

0.037 
0.000 



The analysis of Weardale is taken from Percy's Metal- 
lurgy ; the others were furnished to the writer from dif- 
ferent sources in England. 

The presence of silicon in the iron causes the charge to 
work hot in the converter, and it is usual, therefore, to 
mix an iron rich in this element with others containing a 
less quantity, and which have a tendency to work cold 
and become pasty. As a rule Workington iron contains 
more silicon than any other in use for the process, and 
being moreover an excellent iron is largely used. It is, 



BESSEMER STEEL. 303 

however, from the very fact of its working so hot, seldom 
employed alone, as it cuts the moulds badly in pouring. 

Sulphur and phosphorus are the most injurious ele- 
ments found in the pig, because the pneumatic process is 
powerless to remove them, and the quality of the steel is 
materially affected by their presence. An effectual means 
of eliminating these substances, in the process of conver- 
sion, would be one of the most valuable discoveries of the 
times. 

It is usual among all the steel makers to mix several 
different brands of iron where a uniform and good quality 
of steel is desired, but there seems to be no definite mix- 
ture which is agreed upon as best. The principle appears 
to be to form the larger portion of the charge of the 
better brands of Cumberland hematite, and to add as 
correctives smaller percentages of other irons. The fol- 
lowing will serve as examples, the first having been given 
to the writer by Mr. F. Preston, late managing director 
of the Lancashire Steel Company, and the other being 
from the books of another large firm : — 



I. 






II. 








Workington . 


45 


Cleator . 


. 




. 


Harrington 


, 40 


Workington . 






20 


West Cumberland . 


10 


Harrington 


(No. 


1) 




15 


Wigan . 


20 


Harrington 


(No. 


2) 




5 


Weardale 


7 


Forest of Dean 






10 


Forest of Dean 


3 


Wigan . 


• 


• 




3 




120 


93 


Spiegel . 


7J 










Spiegel . 


. 


. 


61 or 6£ 




127J 













For forgings such as axles, tires, locomotive crank 
shafts, etc., none but No. 1 iron is commonly used, but 
for rails a greater or less amount of No. 2 is added, in 
order to reduce the cost as far as possible. 

The amount of this quality that may be used will of 
course depend on the character of the iron. 

The iron as a rule is melted in reverberatory furnaces, 



304 APPENDIX. 

but at five works, cupolas have been substituted with ap- 
parently good results. These are : — 

The Manchester Railway Steel and Plant Co. ; 

Messrs. Chas. Cammell & Co., Penistoue ; 

The Bolton Iron and Steel Co. ; 

The Barrow Hematite Iron and Steel. Co. ; 

The Mersey Iron and Steel Co., Liverpool. 

At the latter a cupola is also employed for melting 
the spiegeleisen. At the first-mentioned works Wood- 
ward's patent steam-jet cupola is employed, it is stated, 
with a consumption of coke as low as one and one-fourth 
pound per hundred weight of iron. At the others, Ire- 
land's upper tuyere cupolas are employed. These cupolas 
melt very rapidly, and are sufficiently capacious to hold 
an entire charge in the portion below the upper row of 
tuyeres. The size erected for a five-ton plant is seven 
feet in diameter, and will melt five tons of iron in three- 
quarters of an hour. In working, the charge is weighed 
when it is put into the cupola, and, as it melts, remains 
in the bottom till the whole has been fused, when it is 
tapped off into the converter. They generally require 
cleaning once in twenty-four hours. Of course where 
cupolas are used, much greater care has to be exercised 
in the selection of the coke, as fuel which might be used 
in the air furnaces would destroy the quality of the- iron 
if burned in contact with it. The opinion among those 
who employ the cupolas is, that it is quite possible to 
find a coke sufficiently free from sulphur to yield a satis- 
factory result. At the Barrow works, preparations had 
been made to convey the molten metal directly from the 
blast furnaces to the converters, but after a number of 
trials it was found that the uniformity of the metal could 
not be relied on, and, in consequence, the attempt was 
abandoned, and cupolas erected instead, to remelt the pigs. 
The converters at the majority of the works have a capa- 
city adequate for a yield of five tons of steel, or allowing 
one-sixth for waste, which may be taken as a fair average, 
for six tons of molten iron. At Barrow, however, three 
seven and a half ton vessels have been erected, besides 



BESSEMER STEEL. 305 

their five-ton plant, and at Messrs. John Brown & Co.'s 
a pair of ten ton vessels have been in use more than three 
years. The material commonly employed for lining the 
vessels is ganister, a highly silicious substance, found at 
Sheffield. Other materials have been tried at some works, 
as for example, at Dowlais, with apparently great success. 
A pair of vessels, at the works just mentioned, had re- 
cently stood 300 blows each, without relining, and were 
still apparently in good condition. This is much above 
the average endurance of the refractory linings. The 
destruction of tuyeres is an important item in the expense 
of the process. The average life of these is seldom over 
five blows, and the failure of one during, a blow is often 
the cause of considerable loss, either by damage to the 
vessel or by injury to the contained charge. 

In the general arrangement of the Bessemer plant, \ery 
few changes have been made from that planned by Mr. 
Bessemer and contained in the drawings supplied to his 
licensees. A pair of converting vessels usually placed 
opposite to each other, but in some cases side by side, 
stand at the side of a casting pit, sunk a few feet below 
the general level of the floor. These vessels are mounted 
on trunnions, and are revolved on them by means of a 
rack and pinion operated by hydraulic pressure. The 
melting furnaces are placed in a room having a consider- 
ably higher floor level than the converting room, so that 
the melted metal may be run by its own gravity into the 
mouth of the converter, when the latter is turned down 
suitably to receive it. In the centre of the pit is a ver- 
tical hydraulic piston or crane, carrying at its upper end 
a platform, at one end of which is a ladle sufficiently 
large to hold the contents of the converter at the end of 
the operation. The platform is furnished with gearing, 
so that it may be easily revolved to bring the ladle over 
each ingot mould successively, the latter being arranged 
accordingly in the arc of a circle near the side of the pit, 
which here has the same form. The ladle is provided 
with a nozzle and stopper in its bottom, by means of 
which the flow of the steel is regulated. Two hydraulic 
2(o* 



306 APPENDIX. 

cranes, consisting simply of vertical pistons, carrying a 
long horizontal jib with a rolling carriage, to which a 
chain and hook is attached for lifting the ingots, are 
placed near the edge of the pit, about opposite the centre 
of the converters, and serve also to lift off the various 
parts of the latter when required for repairs. The blast 
valve and hydraulic apparatus pertaining to the converters 
are worked from a valve stand, placed at a suitable dis- 
tance from the pit, the cranes being operated by a valve 
directly attached to them, so that the attendant boy may 
the better see what he is required to do, and the whole 
of the manipulation of the vessels, ladles, and ingots, 
gives an ease ofsvorking and a perfection of control, with 
economy of labor, which should lead to the more general 
application of hydraulic power to other departments of 
industry in which large masses have to be dealt with. 
The water pressure used for the purpose is about 300 
pounds per square inch. The sizes of ingots most com- 
monly cast are, for rails, about 10 inches square, for 
locomotive crank shafts, ingots of a rectangular section, 
say 22 inches X 16 inches, and for other forgings accord- 
ing to the size and nature of the work, the moulds having 
a weight about equal to that of the ingots. At some 
works, the plan is adopted of testing a sample of each 
blow for carbon, and classifying the metal according to 
the result of this test. By this means much greater uni- 
formity in the finished work is obtained, and in the pre- 
sent state of our knowledge of the process, this is a very 
necessary means to secure this end, and should be more 
generally adopted. The process employed was intro- 
duced from Sweden, and is exceedingly simple in its 
nature. It consists in dissolving a known weight of 
metal in the form of drill chips, or some other finely 
divided state, in nitric acid, of the gravity 1.2. The 
solution will have a brown color, more or less deep accord- 
ing to the percentage of carbon contained in the metal. 
A standard color, corresponding to a known percentage 
of carbon, as determined by direct analysis, is first estab- 
lished, and the color of the solution to be tested is made 



BESSEMER STEEL. 307 

to agree exactly with this by the addition of a certain 
quantity of acid or water. That this, which is the readiest 
method of producing agreement, may be employed, the 
color of the standard solution must be light. The water 
is added to the solution in a graduated test tube, so that 
the exact proportion of water relatively to the original 
solution may be read off with ease, and if, for example, 
an equal bulk of water requires to be added to make the 
color the same as the standard, the percentage of carbon 
in the specimen under test must be just double that of 
the standard. As a solution of steel in acid would in 
the course of time change its color, an exact imitation of 
it is made by dissolving burnt sugar,- and this is kept 
hermetically sealed for comparison. To secure a light 
standard color, it is not necessary that the piece of steel 
dissolved should contain a small percentage of carbon, 
but a larger quantity of acid may be used in a known 
proportion, say twice or three times the required amount, 
and the corresponding percentage of carbon will be 
equally well ascertained. This test is easily and quickly 
applied, and the variation of color being considerable, 
gives results sufficiently accurate for the purpose of a 
proper classification of the ingots according to the pur- 
poses for which they are suited. 

The principal uses to which the Bessemer metal is put 
in England, are the manufacture of rails, tires, axles, 
machinery forgings, and boiler plate. The total amount 
produced may be judged from the fact that the quantity 
made per week at the works of Messrs. John Brown & 
Co., limited, and Messrs. Chas. Cammell &• Co., limited, is 
stated to be 600 or 700 tons each. The number of estab- 
lishments at which the process is in operation is about 
fifteen, and the number of converters employed upwards 
of fifty. The chief market is for rails, and a large pro- 
portion of the orders are for American roads. In Eng- 
land, not much ordinary line has been laid with steel 
rails, but on most roads those portions which are exposed 
to excessive wear, such as stations and inclines, are being 
relaid with steel. The public are already familiar with 



308 APPENDIX. 

the vastly superior endurance of steel in such situations, 
and nothing need therefore be said here on that point. 

MANUFACTURE OF STEEL RAILS. 

It is usual, as already stated, to cast a 10-inch square 
ingot for rails. At most works, this is reheated in a re- 
verberatory furnace and hammered down to 7 inches 
square. At some prominent establishments, however, 
this process is dispensed with, and a 10-inch ingot is 
taken directly to the rolls and rolled down to 7 inches. 
At Crewe, Mr. Ramsbottom employs a heavy cogging 
machine for the same purpose. This is simply a form of 
reversing rolls made exceedingly large, and only perform- 
ing a part of a revolution at each pass of the ingot. It 
is stated that the rails made from unhammered ingots 
stand equally good tests with those which have first under- 
gone hammering. 

The substitution of rolling, of course, cheapens the 
manufacture, and reduces the amount of plant necessary, 
as well as the number of hands required. It is usual 
after the ingot has been brought from 10 inches down to 
7 inches to put it back into the heating furnace for a 
short time, to bring it up to a heat sufficient to carry it 
through the remainder of the process. With hammered 
ingots it is usual to allow them to become cold after 
hammering, and to reheat them entirely anew, since it is 
not easy to regulate the heats so as to have the hammer 
supply hot ingots to the furnaces for the rolling mill. 
This, of course, involves a further additional expense in 
the use of the hammer. In heating the ingots care has 
to be taken that the heat is not forced so as to burn the 
steel, and ample time must be given for it to "soak." 
Practically about four heats are obtained in twelve hours, 
where with iron seven or eight could be got. When the 
ingots are rolled from the cast size, it is usual to provide 
larger furnaces and a greater number for the first heat 
than for the second, as the fewer and smaller ones will 
work off the same number of ingots, on account of the 



BESSEMER STEEL. 8( 9 

sliorter time necessary to bring them to tlie required beat. 
At tbe Dowlais works, for example, there are seven fur- 
naces holding seven ingots each for the first heat, and but 
four holding four a piece for the supplementary heating. 

The usual size of rolls for steel rails of the English 
(80 lbs. per yard), or other pattern is from 22 inches to 
24 inches diameter. In some Cases, however, smaller 
sizes are in use, as at Crewe, and at the Mersey iron and 
steel works, at the latter of which only an 18-inch train 
is employed. These, however, are trains which were 
originally intended for rolling iron rails, and have been 
compelled to do service for steel. 

The speed with rolls of the first mentioned sizes varies 
from sixty to forty revolutions per minute ; the former 
extreme, however, seems preferable. The drafts on the 
rolls are made somewhat lighter and more numerous 
than for iron — say two more grooves for finishing. 

At several works reversing rolling mills have been 
erected, to avoid the necessity of lifting the ingots in re- 
turning, and also to save time by operating on the ingot 
when moving in either direction. The usual plan has 
been to effect the reversing by engaging by means of a 
clutch gears running in opposite directions. This neces- 
sarily brings a severe shock on all the machinery, espe- 
cially at high speeds, aud in some cases where the arrange- 
ment has been introduced it is not used, the mill always 
running in one direction, and the rolling being carried 
on in the usual way. Mr. Ramsbottom has constructed 
and patented a reversing mill, which he uses for rolling 
locomotive frame plates, at Crewe, which is free from this 
objection. He drives his rolls by a pair of engines, re- 
sembling a set of locomotive engines in most of their 
details, and without any fly-wheel. These work at a 
high speed, and are geared to the rolls in such a manner 
as to reduce the speed to the required amount. The 
link motion is thrown up or down in reversing by a 
hydraulic piston, easily set in motion by the attendant, 
and by these means the engines can be reversed seventy 
times per minute, and entirely without shock. This 



310 APPENDIX. 

principle for reversing would appear ranch preferable to 
the use of a clutch. The employment of a fly-wheel is 
not found necessary, as the engines, in virtue of their 
high speed, contain power sufficient to overcome any ob- 
stacles within the limits of safety to the rolls, beyond 
which it is better that they should stop. Mr. Rams- 
bottom has adopted in this set of rolls a thorough appli- 
cation of hydraulic power for all the operations of manipu- 
lation, and has thereby obtained great facility of working 
and economy of labor. Instead of the reversing principle, 
a steam or hydraulic lifting gear is used at some works 
for raising the ingot to the level of the top of the upper 
roll, and by many this is preferred to reversing. 

The Siemens furnace is coming extensively into use in 
steel works for heating ingots. At present they are in 
operation at Crewe, Bolton, Barrow, the Mersey works, 
and some other places. They require a certain amount 
of care in their management, but yield very satisfactory 
results in their working. They are expensive in first 
cost, but in districts where coal slack is abundant they 
are exceedingly economical in respect of fuel, since they 
allow of the use of this cheap material instead of better 
and more expensive coal. But even where good coal 
must be employed in the gas producers, the utilization of 
all the heat produced by combustion renders the saving 
of fuel very considerable as compared with the ordinary 
reverberatory furnace. For steel an excessively high 
temperature, such as is required for some operations, and 
which alone the Siemens regenerators are able to give, is 
not necessary, and where much steam power is required 
it may be quite as economical to employ the waste heat 
from the furnaces for h.eating the boilers as to pass it 
through regenerators for the purpose of heating the in- 
coming gases for the furnaces themselves. In such a 
case as much and more expensive fuel might be required 
for generating steam under independent boilers as would 
be saved at the furnaces by the use of the regenerators. 
In this connection may be noticed a plan that has been 
adopted at the Bolton works with good results, viz., the 



BESSEMER STEEL. 811 

heating of boilers by gas drawn directly from the gas 
producers. This, of course, gives the same economy in 
respect of the use of slack as already referred to. Where 
sufficient steam is already obtained or is not required at 
all, the regenerative furnaces are of undoubted advantage. 
Mr. Webb, at Bolton, states that it is still an open ques- 
tion with him whether it is preferable to heat his boilers, 
as already mentioned, by gas, or to place them over fur- 
naces fired in the ordinary way with coal. 

The sawing, straightening, and punching of rails are 
conducted in general as in America, with the exception 
that a single saw, or a pair side by side, instead of two 
separated by the length of the rail, is used. The length 
of the rail is regulated by stops on the carriage, one end 
being sawed off and the rail then passed along on the 
friction-rollers in the carriage till it reaches the stop, 
when the other end is cut off. The use of a single saw, 
it is claimed, enables the cut to be made at the most suit- 
able point, as indicated by the appearance of the end, and 
also gives greater facility in varying the length of the 
rail as required for different orders. At Barrow, the 
rollers in the saw carriage are driven by friction gearing 
from the saw engine, so that the rail is passed along 
automatically ; the carriage is also drawn up to the saw 
by a number of racks and pinions at intervals along its 
length driven in a similar manner. 

At some works, severe tests are adopted for ascertain- 
ing the quality of rails, and until more accurate know- 
ledge of the nature of the Bessemer ingots is obtained 
some such tests would appear to be very necessary. The 
usual method of procedure is to place a rail from each lot 
made from one mixing of metal, on supports three feet 
apart, and let fall upon it midway between them a weight 
of one ton from heights varying from ten to thirty feet, 
and observing the deflection produced. It is considered 
that good rails should not break under this test, though 
they may bend considerably where great height of fall is 
employed. 

The use of steel-headed rails is a point of great import- 



312 APPENDIX. 

ance, but one on which at present little that is conclusive 
can be said. They have been made to a considerable ex- 
tent at the Crewe works of the London and Northwestern 
Railway Company for use on that line, and Mr. Webb 
(formerly of Crewe) has patents for forms and materials 
of piles for their production. One of the points which 
Mr. Webb claims is interposing a layer of puddle bar 
between the steel face and the fibrous iron, for the pur- 
pose of making a more gradual transition between the 
crystalline and fibrous metals, and thereby securing a 
more perfect union in the successive layers. The same 
thing has been done for many years in the United States. 
In the Exposition, specimens of steel -headed rails of 
French manufacture are shown, which have been struck 
on the top of the head with a steam hammer, cracking 
vertically through both steel and iron, and buckling up 
the web without any appearance of separation between 
the steel face and the iron beneath it. Although the 
specimen gives no evidence of being a selected one (the 
line of the weld being plainly marked on the external 
surface), yet it is clear that no such test can decide a 
question which can really only be properly solved by ex- 
perience under the conditions of regular working. A 
sudden blow may be incompetent to produce effects which 
may follow prolonged and irregular hammering under 
the wheels of railway trains. While, therefore, steel- 
headed rails cannot be pronounced an absolute success, 
there is every reason for prosecuting the experiment, and 
reasonable grounds for anticipating a perfectly successful 
result. 1 

As the production of rails is at present the largest 
branch- of the Bessemer steel manufacture, the disposition 
to be made of the crop ends becomes a epiestion of imme- 
diate importance, and that to be made of the worn-out 
rails one of future moment. As the metal, when it con- 
tains any material proportion of carbon, is unreliable 

1 Experiments made in the United States, after a trial of two 
years, have demonstrated that a perfectly sound weld of the 
steel to iron can be secured in the head of the rail. 



BESSEMER STEEL. 313 

when welded, it is not so easy to decide to what use the 
large amount of ends sawed off from the rails shall be 
put. At present it must be admitted they are rather a 
drug in the market. When an iron that works hot in the 
converter is used, a certain quantity of these euds may be 
remelted in the vessel without injury to the steel. About 
four hundred weight per charge of five tons is considered 
admissible at the Dowlais works, the scrap being first 
heated to a red heat in a furnace placed near the vessel, 
and thrown into the latter before running in the molten 
iron. It is difficult, however, to dispose of the whole 
amount in this way. As large a portion as possible is 
sold to the Sheffield crucible steel makers, who remelt 
them, and sell them at a greatly advanced price. At 
some works, again, they are rolled into small plates, and 
in this form they may be used for the manufacture of 
plough shares and other kindred objects ; or in some 
cases they may be rolled and drawn into telegraph wire ; 
it would be impossible, however, to make fine sizes of 
wire from them. If the difficulty of disposing of the steel 
scrap is to continue, it forms another argument in favor 
of steel-headed rails, since these, when worn out, would 
contaiu but little steel and could be readily piled and re- 
rolled, the pile being so arranged as to bring the steel in 
the least vital parts of the rail in case its presence should 
lead to any unsoundness of the welding. It would ap- 
pear, however, that an adequate market for old rails 
could be formed by rerolling them into the form of bars 
for machinery and other purposes, for which, by reason 
of their superior strength, they should be more valuable 
than wrought iron. 

MANUFACTURE OF TIRES. 

Next in importance to the manufacture of steel rails is 
that of tires for locomotive and railway carriage wheels. 
Four years ago it was attempted to weld these up, as in 
the case of iron from straight bars, but the unreliability 
of all tires so made was soon apparent, and the attention 
of manufacturers was directed to discovering some practi- 
27 



314 APPENDIX. 

cable means of producing them without welds. With the 
exception of the form of the ingot cast for the purpose, 
the mode of manufacture adopted at all the English 
works has attaiued a remarkable degree of uniformity. 
Mr. Ramsbottom casts his tire ingots in the form of a 
truncated cone, a usual size being two feet diameter at 
the bottom, six inches diameter at the top, and thirty 
inches height. This he hammers on its ends and sides 
till it assumes the shape of an ordinary flat cheese, with 
a thickness of about twelve inches. Another heat is then 
taken on it, and it is then placed under a steam hammer 
furnished with a pointed conical tool, and by successive 
blows with this on both sides a hole is forced through the 
centre of the disk, and this again expanded as the ham- 
mering proceeds, till the upper part of the tool, which is 
flat, comes down upon the tire and consolidates the metal 
by reducing its thickness. A third heat is then taken, 
and the ring so formed is placed over a stout beck pro- 
jecting from the inclined side of an anvil, which main- 
tains the ring in such a position as to give a suitable 
bevel to the outer face when struck by the hammer, while 
at the same time its diameter is considerably increased by 
the operation. After this third hammering it is ready for 
the rolls, and a fourth and last heat is taken for that pur- 
pose. Mr. Ramsbottom holds a patent for the method 
of punching the tire blocks by a sharp-pointed conical 
tool without the removal of any of the metal. The form 
of rolling-mill employed by Mr. Ramsbottom is exceed- 
ingly complicated, and is the only one of its kind, as far 
as the writer is aware, which' is in use in England, unless 
it be at the works of the patentee, Mr. Jackson, at Man- 
chester. 

At Mr. Allen's works, Sheffield (H. Bessemer & Co.), 
the cheese-shaped blocks are produced from an ingot of 
the ordinary square form, this being cast sufficiently large 
to form a number of tires, say four, and then hammered 
round and cut up into sections, each of a weight suitable 
for one tire. The central hole is punched by flat-ended 
punches about eight inches in diameter at the lower end, 



BESSEMER STEEL. 315 

and perhaps nine inches above, driven in from both sides 
successively, and knocking out a circular disk about two 
inches thick as scrap. The blocks used with this process 
are of less thickness, say seven inches. The hole so 
formed is slightly enlarged by forcing the ring down 
over a truncated conical block which is placed on the 
anvil for the purpose, and subsequently another heat is 
taken, and the hammering continued on the inclined beck 
of an anvil, as already described. The weight of the 
block can be accurately adjusted by varying the thickness 
at the time of punching out the central disk, by which 
means the amount of metal removed will be effected. 
Another plan adopted by Mr. Allen is to cast annular 
ingots, sometimes a number, one above the other, fed 
from one gate. These are cast with considerable depth, 
so as to allow of sufficient hammering to thoroughly con- 
solidate the metal, and the weight is regulated by the 
size of the central core employed. For rolling the tires 
from the hammered rings he employs the tire-mill, con- 
structed by Messrs. Galloway & Sons, of Manchester, 
which is the simplest one in use, and gives results prob- 
ably not at all inferior to those of other more complicated 
forms. It is the one most generally adopted in England. 
The only other variation in the tire-making process is, 
that at some works, for the purpose of avoiding the 
severe one-sided strain brought upon the hammer by the 
use of the inclined beck for bevelling the rings, the ring 
is placed on a stout mandrel supported on a bifurcated 
anvil, and the necessary bevel is given by a tool of the 
proper shape with which the hammer is furnished. In 
Galloway's and most other tire-rolling machines the roll 
spindles are placed vertically and extend to a consider- 
able distance below the horizontal- bed of the machine. 
The rolls themselves are situated just above the surface 
of the latter, with no bearing above them, the spindles 
being long and stiff enough to resist all the strain coming 
upon them. The tire is thus readily dropped over the* 
ends of the rolls and removed when finished. Its diameter 
is determined by a simple sliding gauge, measuring from 



316 APPENDIX. 

the centre of the internal roll to the inner face of the tire 
at its greatest distance from the former. Bessemer steel 
tires by the above processes are now made in great num- 
bers and give good satisfaction in use. There are some 
who still prefer the crucible steel for this purpose, but 
the difference in cost is so largely in favor of the Bessemer 
metal that it is probable the former will eventually cease 
to be made. 

MANUFACTURE OF BESSEMER PLATES. 

The application of the Bessemer process to the produc 
tion of plates either for boilers or for ships, girders, etc. 
is one of the most important that could be made. Never 
theless the amount of metal used for this purpose in Eng 
land falls much below that employed for other purposes 
This is due to a certain amount of distrust of steel plates 
doubt as to its reliability under varying strains of tension 
and compression, its capability of being punched and 
sheared without injury to itself, and of its action under 
the influence of heat and water, as in the fire-box of a 
boiler. In other countries, as for example Austria, as 
will be shown when we come to speak of the manufacture 
as carried on in that country, this has not been the case, 
and large quantities of plates have been produced and 
successfully applied to a variety of uses. 

The secret of the distrust in regard to Bessemer plates 
in England is that in nearly all cases the percentage of 
carbon contained in the metal has been too large. The 
spiegeleisen used in England is not particularly rich in 
manganese — seldom exceeding nine per cent, of that ele- 
ment, while it generally contains from four to four and a 
half per cent, of carbon. It is difficult, therefore, with 
such materials to deoxygenate the metal sufficiently with- 
out introducing also a considerable percentage of carbon. 
About 0.4 per cent, of the latter is as large an amount 
as is proper for plates which are to resist severe strains, 
and though a greater proportion adds materially to the 
tensile strength of the metal when measured simply by a 
direct pull, it renders it also much harder and more liable 



BESSEMER STEEL. 317 

to crack under the treatment to which it is exposed in the 
ordinary methods of construction. The difficulty in the 
way of producing good soft plates for boilers or other 
uses appeared at one time to have been satisfactorily over- 
come by the substitution of ferro-manganese in the place 
of the ordinary spiegeleisen. The manufacture of this 
substance was commenced by a firm in Glasgow as a 
branch of another business in which they were engaged, 
and plates made with it as a deoxygenator gave most ex- 
cellent results. Unfortunately, however, the firm who 
had undertaken the manufacture shortly afterward became 
insolvent, and the patentee of the process has not as yet 
re-established the manufacture (which requires a consider- 
able expenditure for suitable furnaces) elsewhere in Eng- 
land. Had the use of this substance continued for a 
longer time, so as to make the excellence of the steel pro- 
duced with it fully appreciated by the public, there would 
have been a demand for plates urgent enough to have im- 
mediately secured the re-establishment of the manufacture ; 
but in the present state of feeling it may not be so easy 
to induce the necessary primary outlay, especially as a 
certain amount of ill feeling is said to exist between the 
owners of the ferro-manganese patent and the Bessemer 
interest. The percentage of manganese contained in the 
alloy produced by the process referred to varied from fif- 
teen to twenty-five. Another kind of ferro-manganese, 
containing a much larger percentage, and produced in 
Germany by a different process, also the subject of a 
patent, has been offered in the English market, but at 
such an exorbitant price that nobody has ventured to 
buy it. Still, notwithstanding' the absence of ferro-man- 
ganese, good soft plates are produced at some works, 
especially those at Bolton. Messrs. Chas. Cammell & 
Co. also make a large number of plates of good quality. 
The following tests, which they "guarantee all their plates 
to stand, are interesting : — 

Tensile strain per square inch — thirty-three tons : — 
Forge test {hot). — All plates one inch thick and under 
27* 



818 



APPENDIX. 



to bend hot without fracture to an angle of 180°, both 
lengthways of the grain and across. 

Forge test {cold). — All plates will admit of bending 
cold without fracture as follows : — 



BESSEMER PLATES. 







With the grain. 


Across the grain 


1 inch . 


. . 


. 450 


250 


|- inch . 


. 


. 50 


30 


i inch . 


. 


. 60 


40 


1 inch . 


. 


. 70 


50 


£ inch . 


. 


. 80 


60 


j\ inch . 


. . 


. 90 


70 


f inch . 


. 


. 110 


80 


T 5 g inch . 




. 120 


90 


J inch and 


upwards 


. 120 


100 



To show the comparison of this steel with the regular 
crucible steel, the guarantee for plates of the latter is also 
given. 



CRUCIBLE STEEL PLATES. 



Tensile strain per square inch — thirty-eight tons. 







With the grain. 


Across the grain 


1 inch . 


. 


. 50O 


30O 


| inch . 


. 


. 60 


35 


'j inch . 


. . 


. 75 


50 


| inch . 


. . 


. 90 


70 


2- inch . 


. 


. no 


90 


j\ inch . 


. 


. 130 


100 


-| inch . 


. . 


. 150 


110 


T 5 $ inch . 




. 180 


120 


\ inch and 


upwards 


. 180 


120 



Probably the spiegeleisen used for this purpose is 
selected with especial care, and may contain as much as 
eleven per cent, of manganese without an increased pro- 
portion of carbon. By «a proper system of testing the 
ingots, as described above, there should be and is no 
difficulty in ascertaining just what percentage of carbon 
is contained in the metal, and so selecting ingots that are 
suitable for this purpose. With the superior franklinite 



BESSEMER STEEL. 319 

that we possess, together with the purer irons, there is, 
apparently, no reason why we should not produce most 
excellent plates in large quantities, as is already done in 
Austria. 

The manufacture of axles is carried on to a consider- 
able extent, both for locomotives and railway carriages. 
Locomotive crank shafts are now more frequently made 
of this material than any other, and with a far greater 
exemption from breakages. These are usually forged 
from large rectangular ingots, and twisted to the proper 
angle as in the case of iron. To bring these large masses 
down properly with economy requires very heavy ham- 
mers, and to meet this want Mr. Rarasbottom has erected 
at Crewe a thirty-ton hammer, on his patent duplex prin- 
ciple. In order to dispense with the costly foundations 
necessary to sustain the impact of the falling tup in large 
hammers, Mr. Ramsbottom designed about five years 
since, a hammer in which the blow should be struck by 
two heavy masses mounted on wheels, and moving hori- 
zontally in opposite directions, so that their momentum 
should be annihilated in striking the ingot placed between 
them. In the first of these hammers, in which the weight 
of each tup was ten tons, the cylinder was placed verti- 
cally in a pit beneath the hammer and the piston, con- 
nected by inclined links to each tup, so as to communicate 
motion to them on the rails. The ingot was supported 
on a suitable table, or between a pair of stout centres, 
which again rested on a platform capable of being rocked 
slightly to maintain the ingot always exactly in the centre 
of the motion of the tups. A number of these hammers 
are at present in use, and though they constitute the first 
development of a new idea, they do their work tolerably 
well, though they need a greater amount of care than an 
ordinary hammer. In the thirty-ton hammer which has 
been more recently built, the design has been somewhat 
modified, and greater simplicity obtained. In this the 
steam cylinders are horizontal, and placed directly behind 
each tup, the piston rods being secured to the latter by an 
elastic packing, so as to relieve the piston from the shock 



320 APPENDIX. 

of the blow. To control the motion of the two tups, so 
that they shall always meet at the same point, a five- 
threaded screw with a diameter of six inches and a nine- 
inch pitch, or once and a half its diameter, is placed 
beneath them, the thread being cut left handed at one 
end, and right handed at the other. A nut secured to 
the bottom of each tup works on the portion of the screw 
beneath it, and as the screw revolves in its bearings each 
tup advances by the same amount. This arrangement is 
found to work with but little friction, and is not liable to 
derangement. The valve gear is made to be worked by 
hand in the ordinary way. The size of the cylinders and 
pressure of steam are so proportioned as to make the 
pressure on each tup the same as its weight, and the blow 
struck by this hammer is therefore the same as would be 
given by one of the tups falling by gravity through a dis- 
tance equal to the combined stroke of the two tups, or 
seven feet. These hammers have been constructed by 
Messrs. Thwaites & Carbutt, of Bradford, who have had 
great experience in this line of business, having perhaps 
supplied more hammers to the steel makers than any other 
firm. With the heavy hammers just described, the large 
ingots for crank axles are brought down to the required 
size and shape in a very short time. At Crewe it is usual 
to put two of these ingots into the Siemens furnaces in 
the evening, and allow them to heat slowly during the 
night, but one man being required to be in attendance, 
and then to work them off under the hammer in the morn- 
ing before breakfast. In sawing off the ends of his finished 
axle forgings, Mr. Ramsbottom employs a saw seven feet 
six inches in diameter, running at about nine hundred 
revolutions per minute, or a speed on the edge of four 
miles per minute. The cheeks are also sawed out pre- 
paratory to turning the crank wrists. 

In concluding the account of the Bessemer manufacture, 
as at present conducted in England, we may observe that 
while the amount produced is far in excess of that to be 
found elsewhere, yet from the close competition between 






BESSEMER STEEL. 321 

the different makers tending to favor the use of the 
cheapest materials, and from the naturally rather inferior 
character of the native iron employed, the quality of the 
metal is noteqnal to that produced in countries using better 
materials. Accordingly the uses to which it has been chiefly 
devoted have been rails, tires, and axles, together with a 
certain amount of plates. Notwithstanding this there 
have been produced, when proper substances have been 
employed, specimens of the metal which seemed able to 
undergo almost any test that could be devised. It has 
been spun into ornamental vessels of shapes such as would 
bring the most severe strain on the metal without ex- 
hibiting any sign of cracking, or bent into the most cru- 
cial shapes, with equal evidence of its toughness. We 
shall see on examining the product of other countries 
that such qualities in the metal are not at all exceptional, 
but that when steel of great hardness is not intentionally 
produced, they always exist. 

SWEDEN. 

An examination of the specimens of Bessemer steel 
from Sweden in the Exposition shows us that the metal 
there produced is of a far superior character to that made 
in England, and naturally leads to inquiry as to the cause 
of the difference, and whether we may hope to attain the 
same success in the United States. First we observe 
coils of wire of all sizes, down to the very finest, such as 
No. 47, or even smaller. This they have not been able 
regularly to produce in England. In the next place we 
notice a good display of fine cutlery, and the writer is 
informed by a competent authority that this metal answers 
so well for this purpose that it is now used almost to the 
exclusion of any other. This statement is corroborated 
by the fact that in the miscellaneous classes of the Swedish 
department, where cutlery occurs not as an exhibition of 
steel, but merely as a display of workmanship by other 
parties in the same manner as other articles of merchan- 
dise, cases of razors are exhibited with the mark of the 



322 



APPENDIX. 



kind of steel of which they are made stamped or etched 
upon them as usual, and these are all "Bessemer," but 
from a variety of different works, viz , H'ogbo, Carlsdal, 
Osterby & Soderfors. The ore used in Sweden for pro- 
ducing iron for the Bessemer process is exclusively mag- 
netic, and of a very pure quality. An analysis of a mix- 
ture of those used for the iron employed at the Fagersta 
works before roasting gives the following composition : — 



Carb. acid ...... 


. 8.00 


Silicium. ..... 


. 17.35 


Alumina ..... 


. 0.95 


Lime ...... 


. _. 6.50 
. 4.35 


Magnesia ..... 


Protoxide of manganese 


. 3.35 


Magnetic oxide . 


. 32.15 


Peroxide of iron .... 


. 27.40 




100.05 


Phosphoric acid 


. .03 



All the pig made from this mixture of ores the ex- 
hibitors state will give a steel without the use of spiege- 
leisen, which is not at all red short. 

The analysis of gray iron from the same works, used 
for the Bessemer process, is given as follows : — 

Carbon combined . . . . .1.012 

Graphite 3.527 

Silicium 0.854 . 

Manganese ....... 1.919 

Phosphorus 0.031 

Sulphur 0.010 

The cinder, produced at the same time as the gray iron, 
shows on analysis a composition of — 

Silica 53.30 

Alumina . . . . . . 3.00 

Lime 21.10 

Magnesia ....... 13.95 

Protoxide of manganese .... 7.85 

Protoxide of iron . . . . .0.90 



100.10 



BESSEMER STEEL. 323 

The analysis of mottled pig (fonte truitee) consisting 
of two-thirds gray and one-third white, is — 



Carbon combined 
Graphite 
Silicium 
Manganese . 
Phosphorus . 
Sulphur 



. 2.138 
. 2.733 
. 0.641 
. 2.926 
. 0.026 
. 0.015 



Of each of these it is stated that the steel produced 
without the employment of spiegeleisen is not at all red 
short (cassant & chaud). The most noticeable feature in 
the composition of these irons is the large percentage of 
manganese which they contain, together with the ex- 
tremely minute proportion of sulphur. The latter quality 
is due to the exclusive employment of charcoal in the 
blast furnaces, together with the adoption of a very high 
temperature in the roasting kiln. These latter are con- 
structed on Westman's patent, and are made very high 
and heated by the waste gas drawn from the blast fur- 
naces. The heat is carried as high as is possible without 
agglomerating the materials, and by this treatment the 
ore is changed from a hard and compact substance to a 
very porous one, while at the same time it is stated that 
any percentage of sulphur less than four per cent, is 
driven off. The blastfurnaces are very small, being gene- 
rally but eight feet in diameter at the boshes and about 
three feet at the hearth, with a height of forty feet. With 
these ores prepared in this manner, such a furnace will 
yield from seventy to eighty tons per week. It is thought 
by the best informed engineers in Sweden that these fur- 
naces should be made larger, and in future they probably 
will be so ; but these dimensions represent the furnaces 
that now exist, and with which the iron in use has been 
produced. 

In the process of conversion, from motives of economy, 
a fixed form of vessel is employed, instead of one mounted 
on trunnions, as in England and elsewhere. The tuyeres, 
about nineteen in number, are placed horizontally just 
above the bottom of the vessel, and are inclined a little 



32± APPENDIX. 

from a radial direction so as to give a rotary motion to 
the mass of molten metal. An air passage surrounds the 
vessel at the back of the tuyeres, with a movable plate 
opposite each to allow access to them. The upper por- 
tion of the vessel, from the line of the top of the blast 
passage, is made removable, for lining, etc. ; the bottom 
of the vessel is slightly inclined towards the taphole, so 
that the whole of the metal and slag may run off. The 
metal is run in at a spout in the upper portion of the 
vessel, and from the fixed position of the vessel it is of 
course necessary to have the blast on all the time that 
the metal is being run in and drawn off, to prevent its 
flowing into the tuyeres. This fact must make it more 
difficult to regulate the exact amount of decarbonizatiou 
of the metal, and tend to render the last portion drawn 
off overdone. The removal of the cinder remaining in 
the vessel after a blow is not so easily accomplished in 
the fixed vessel as in the revolving one, as ordinarily used. 
Accompanying the analyses of ores and irons, given 
above, the Fagersta works exhibit an analysis of the slag 
from the converter, taken at the close of the process, and 
it shows the composition to be as follows : — 

Silica 44.30 

Alumina ....... 10.85 

Lime . . . . . . . . 0.G5 

Magnesia ....... 0.45 

Protoxide of manganese .... 24.55 

Protoxide of iron . . . . .19.45 



100.25 



The case of specimens exhibited by these works is the 
most interesting by far in the Exposition. It contains a 
most extensive collection of pieces of various forms, with 
which a very elaborate set of experiments has just been 
made at Mr. D. Kirkaldy's testing works at London, the 
results of which will be found in Appendix C. The 
samples are classified according to the percentage of car- 
bon which they contain, and have been tested to show 
their action under strains of tension, compression, torsion, 
bending, and, in the case of plates, bulging. 



BESSEMER STEEL 



325 



The amount of carbon contained in the steel varies 
from 0.1 to 1.50 per cent., though most of the experi- 
ments were made between the limits of 0.3 and 1.20 per 
cent. In addition to the large collection of test pieces, 
they exhibit some railway carriage axles containing 0.3 
per cent, of carbon, one being bent double with a radius 
of curvature at the bend of about five inches ; a locomo- 
tive axle containing 0.4 per cent., and a tire having 0.5 
per cent, of carbon. There is also, as already mentioned, 
a fine display of cutlery, razors, some beautiful hand mir- 
rors containing 1.0 per cent., a small drill containing 1.50 
per cent., with a plate beside it containing 1.00 per cent., 
through which it had drilled several holes ; a number of 
long turnings taken off in a lathe, showing remarkably 
the absolute continuity of the grain — -one of 0.3 per cent, 
of carbon measures 36 feet in length, and is closely coiled 
with a diameter of about y 1 ^ inch; another of 0.9 per 
cent, is 27 feet long and slightly less in diameter. There 
are also a large number of files, and, as previously men- 
tioned, coils of wire of all sizes, and apparently any re- 
quired length. A very interesting table of results was 
obtained from a series of eleven small square bars con- 
taining varying percentages of carbon, as follows : — 



No. 


c3 
o 

o 

"p 

o . 

a 




3 

■an 

'5 

.2 § 
Is ft 


* 2 
p D i 

.r- & 

£A CO 


■ 4_i 
o o 

P-l *i 

2 

«E ft 
p"£ § 

•-§2-1 


S p.2 

o • ~ u 

." to .— 1 

-w oS 

o^.2 
ft 2 iD 


:aking weight 
r square inch 
ruptured sec- 
n. 


p 
o 

o 




. *-> o 




2 2 




O rt p 


&** 


(gp.0 33 




1 


0.35 


.2323 


16,262 


69,730 


.0854 


36.65 


190,250 


12.0 


2 


0.45 


.1448 


14,663 


100,80(1 


.0996 


6S.5 


147,160 


10.3 


3 


0.45 


.1398 


14,663 


104,300 


.1150 


81.9 


130,300 


9.2 


4 


0.70 


.234 


29,540 


125,800 


.2026 


86.3 


145,7.50 


1.56 


5 


. 70 


.1563 


16,074 


102,300 


.1314 


S3. 46 


122,300 


4.0 


6 


0.70 


.1515 


19,841 


131,400 


.1400 


92.05 


141,660 


5.4 


7 


0.70 


.14S5 


17,016 


114,100 


.1230 


82:55 


138,240 


5.8 


S 


0.90 


.1466 


19,935 


135,400 


.1189 


80.80 


167,500 


67 


9 


1.00 


.2338 


30,012 


128,000 


.2242 


95.69 


133, S00 


2.3 


10 


1.00 


.1516 


20,218 


132.700 


J400 


91.93 


144,300 


6.6 


11 


1.00 


.1494 


21,726 


144, S00 


.1400 


93.31 


155,120 


4.0 



28 



326 APPENDIX. 

The cost of steel for the more delicate uses, such as 
razors, etc., is very much less by the Bessemer process 
than by the old method of remelting in the crucible. The 
materials in ordinary use are sufficiently pure to give such 
a steel, and the only special precaution which has to be 
observed in producing these qualities is to add a sufficient 
amount of recarbonizing pig to give the required per 
cent, of carbon, and then in the process of tilting the 
bars to carefully reject any piece which may show sign of 
flaw, as would of course be necessary under any circum- 
stances. The total production of Bessemer steel in 
Sweden in 1864 was 3178 tons; that of crucible steel ex- 
ceeded 4500 tons. 

AUSTRIA. 

The conditions under which Bessemer metal is pro- 
duced in Austria are in many respects similar to those 
existing in Sweden. The iron employed is smelted with 
charcoal, is nearly free from sulphur and phosphorus, and 
contains a large percentage of manganese. There are 
differences in the manner of conducting the process, but 
these important conditions insure the production of a 
metal of similar excellence to the Swedish, and, like this, 
much superior to the ordinary metal produced in Eng- 
land. 

The principal works in Austria are at Neuberg, in the 
province of Styria, and are carried on by the government. 
The iron is obtained from spathic ores smelted in two 
furnaces 43 feet high, and yielding from 100 to 150 tons 
per week. The iron produced is found by analysis to 
contain 3.46 per cent, of manganese, and, as in Sweden, 
it is used for recarbonizing in the place of the usual 
spiegeleisen. Originally a fixed vessel was erected as 
these works similar to those used in Sweden, but this has 
been superseded by a pair of three-ton vessels of the ordi- 
nary construction. Fixed or Swedish vessels are, how- 
ever, still in use at other Austrian works. The metal it 
run directly from the blast furnaces into the converters. 
Very interesting tables are exhibited by these works, 



BESSEMER STEEL. 



327 



giving analyses of the iron and slag at five periods in its 
conversion from its condition as tapped from the furnace 
to its final state as Bessemer metal. These are extremely 
interesting from the light which they throw upon the 
relative rapidity with which the components of the pig 
iron are attacked by the blast, and the permanency of 
some ingredients, such as phosphorus and copper, during 
the entire process. The results are as follows: — 





a 
p 

o 

■*" to 


After the disap- 
pearance of the 
sparks from the 
converter. 


so 
a 

%i 


a 

o 

o 
a 

m 


© a 

o 

c u 
."s « 

T3 P 

ce ~ a 
«2 .2 


IRON. 
Graphite 
Carbon combined 
Silicium 
Phosphorus . 
Sulphur 
Manganese . 
Copper .... 
Iron .... 




3.180 
0.750 
1.960 
0.040 
0.018 
3.460 
0.0S5 
90.507 


2.465 
0.443 
0.040 
trace 
1.645 
0.091 
95.316 


0.949 
0.112 
0.045 
trace 
0.429 
0.095 
9S.370 


6.087 

0.028 
0.045 
trace 
0.113 
0.120 
99.607 


0*234 
0.033 
0.044 
trace 
0.139 
0.105 
99.445 


SLAG. 
Silica .... 
Alumina 

Protoxide of iron 
Protoxide of manganese 
Lime .... 
Magnesia 
Potash .... 

Soda 

Sulphur .... 
Phosphorus .... 


40.95 
S.70 
60 
2.18 
30.35 
16.32 
0.18 
0.14 
0.34 
0.01 


46.78 
4.65 
6.7S 

37.00 
2.9S 
1.53 
trace 
trace 
trace 
0.03 


51.75 
2.9S 
5.^0 

37.90 
1.76 
0.45 
trace 
trace 
trace 
0.02 


46.75 
2. SO 
16.86 
32.23 
1.19 
0.52 
trace 
trace 
trace 
0.01 


47.25 
3.45 
15.43 
31.89 
1.23 
0.61 
trace 
trace 
trace 
0.01 



From each charge blown at these works a small test 
ingot is cast, and this is immediately reheated and sub- 
jected to a number of tests to ascertain the quality of the 
steel ; and according to the results of these trials, all the 
metal produced is divided into seven grades of varying 
hardness, No. 1 being a blue steel, containing from 112 
to 1.58 per cent, of carbon; and No. 7 a soft iron, with 
from 0.05 to 0.15 per cent. 

The test employed consists in hammering the little 



328 



APPENDIX. 



ingot into a bar, and subjecting it to severe working on 
the anvil, in a way which would tend to crack it if of a 
red short nature, or of inferior quality. It is then heated 
and plunged into water, and the amount of hardening 
produced proved by striking it with a hammer, and ob- 
serving the amount of flexure produced. It is then heated 
again and bent over upon itself and welded into an eye, 
the welded portion being drawn out to a small section 
and broken off. These tests take but a short time, and 
the expense of making them is insignificant in comparison 
with the accurate knowledge thereby obtained of the 
nature of the steel and the purposes for which it is suit- 
able. As a rule, the steel produced at the Neuberg works 
welds with great facility, and, in fact, all the tires pro- 
duced here are welded as in the case of iron. A table of 
the tensile strengths and other properties of steel, of the 
various classes below No. 2, is exhibited, and is as fol- 
lows : — 





No. 3. 


No. 4. 


No. 5. 


No. 6. 


No. 7. 


Percentage of combined 
carbon. 


O.SS 
to 
1.12 


0.62 
to 

O.SS 


0.3S 
to 
0.62 


0.15 

to 
0.38 


0.05 
to 
0.15 


Tensile strength, tons 
per square inch. 


63.13 

to 
74.61 


51.65 

to 
63.13 


40.17 

to 
51.65 


34.43 

to 
40.17 


28.69 

to 
34.43 


Extensibility 


.03 


.10 to .05 


.20 to .10 


.25 to .20 


.30 to .25 


Hardening . 


with care 


very -well 


very well 


feebly 


not at all 


Welding 


very well 
as hard 
cast steel 


very well 


very well 


very well 


very well 



The softest grade is used for wire, sheet steel, etc., and 
the higher numbers for boiler plate, gun barrels, axles, 
tires, tools, and cutlery, according to the hardness re- 
quired. 

A printed list gives the price of the steel in various 
forms delivered at the works, which, reduced to gold dol- 
lars, is as follows: ingots, $77.50; bars, $138; boiler 



BESSEMER STEEL. 329 

plate, $145.50; tires, $155.50. These prices are little 
above those charged in England, where coal is abundant 
and an inferior quality of metal produced. 

In other countries than Sweden and Austria, we find 
nothing that presents any remarkable feature not to be 
found in English practice. Of course, E^rupp is far ahead 
of all others in respect to the size of the masses that he 
casts. He exhibits in the Exposition a forty-ton (40,000 
kilograms) ingot, intended for a crank shaft, which he 
states was cast from crucibles. His process of making 
tires is similar to that in use in England. He first makes 
a bloom about 6 feet long and 13 inches by 10 inches, 
and then cuts this up into sections of the required weight. 
A slit is cut through the middle of these, and they are 
then worked out into an annular form, and afterwards 
rolled on a mill of a construction similar to those in use 
in England, with the exception that the bed, instead of 
being horizontal, is vertical, as if one of those machines 
were turned up on its edge. Two mills, one for rough- 
ing and one for finishing, are employed. His tire-heating 
furnaces are placed in a pit at the side of the mill, and 
are similar to the furnaces of a brass foundry, the tires 
being laid on the fire by a central crane. 

The French also exhibit good specimens of Bessemer 
metal, but, as already stated, there seems to be no marked 
advance on what has been accomplished in England, and 
it will not be necessary, therefore, to notice in detail the 
articles they have brought forward. 

The manufacture has been established at six works, and 
the production, in 1866 was as follows : — 



Compagnie de Terrenoire 
Cie. de Chatillon, Comrnentry 
Societe d'Imphy, St. Seurin (Jackson's) 
S. Menan's & Cie .... 

De Dietrich & Cie .... 

Petiii, Gaudet & Cie .... 

Total 

28* 



Tons. 


. 1,537 
59 


. 4,858 
. 000 


. 486 


. 3,851 


10,791 



330 APPENDIX. 

Of this product, 3687 tons were in the form of rails. 
In 1863 but three works were in operation, with a total 
product of 1857 tons. At the present time the metal 
produced in France by this process does not stand as 
high in the opinion of iron-masters as puddled or other 
steel. It may be that this is due to the nature of the pig 
iron employed, or it may be due to a lack of experience 
in the manufacture as compared with other nations. 

At the works of Messrs. Petin, Gandet & Co., near 
St. Etienne, a pair of six-ton converters have been erected, 
and a single vessel, capable at present of producing a 
charge of eight tons, and in which it is expected to make 
twelve-ton charges when the lining becomes reduced in 
thickness. This is the largest Bessemer apparatus in 
France. 

Submitted by FREDERIC J. SLADE, 

Scientific Assistant to Committee No. 6. 

Paris, June 15, 1867. 

Berard and Martin Processes. 

A careful study of the Exposition showed but two 
other processes for making steel worthy of notice, and 
both French : the one patented by A. Berard and tried 
at the forges of Montataire; the other that of Emille and 
Pierre E. Martin, in operation at Sireuil. In both these 
systems cast steel is made in a reverberatory furnace. In 
Berard's process the conversion of the pig iron into steel 
is sought to be achieved by subjecting the melted metal 
alternately to a decarbonizing and recarbonizing flame, 
for which purpose it is necessary to employ blast. He 
uses a Siemens furnace, and avails himself of the changes 
of current required in working the regenerators to effect 
the changes of flame. The furnace is divided by a bridge 
into two halves, and he thus operates upon two masses of 
iron at the same time, one of which is freshly charged, 
while the other contains material which is nearly decar- 
bonized. Some specimens of Berard's steel were on ex- 
hibition, and although creditable in themselves, it was 



BERARD AND MARTIN PROCESSES. 331 

generally understood that he had not yet succeeded in 
making steel regularly for market. The Messrs. Martin, 
on the contrary, were not only making steel regularly at 
their own works at Sireuil, but the process is also in 
operation at two of the largest works in France — Le 
Creusot and Firminy, and is in process of erection at 
various other works in Europe, and arrangements have 
been made for its immediate introduction into the United 
States. In this process the pig iron is deprived of its 
carbon by the addition of pieces of wrought iron or steel 
either in the form of shingled puddle balls, or of scrap. 
The quantity, however, of wrought iron necessary to re- 
duce the carbon to the required limits, is much less than 
would be inferred, from the consideration of the quantity 
contained in the pig, and does not in practice much ex- 
ceed the quantity of pig itself. A charge of gray pig or 
of spiegeleisen is melted in a Siemens furnace, having a 
bed hollowed out to contain it, and is allowed to remain 
about half an hour after fusion to bring it to an intense 
white heat ; portions of malleable iron previously brought 
to a bright red heat are then added in successive charges 
of about 200 pounds, at intervals of twenty minutes to a 
half hour, each charge being thoroughly melted before 
the next is added. After two or three such additions, 
ebullition commences in the bath of metal, and continues 
till the carbon is wholly removed from the pig. The 
exact condition of the metal is ascertained from small 
proofs taken from the charge, after each addition of iron 
towards the end of the operation. These are run into a 
small ingot mould, and when cooled to the proper heat, 
hammered into a plate, about T 5 F of an inch thick by 5 
inches in diameter. When the decarbonization is com- 
pletely effected these proofs will bend double cold, and 
show a fracture quite fibrous. A quantity of pig, gene- 
rally of the same kind as was used for the preliminary 
charge, is then added in such proportion to the amount 
of iron in the furnace as to give the desired hardness to 
the steel, according to the use for which it is required. 
When this is melted the bath is well stirred to insure 



332 APPENDIX. 

homogeneity in its substance, and a final proof taken, 
which is treated in the same manner as the others, and 
gives reliable evidence as to the state of the metal before 
pouring. This enables the quality to be very exactly ad- 
justed to the degree of hardness required. Should it be 
too soft, more pig is added, while if it is too hard, the 
mere waiting from a quarter to half an hour will materially 
soften the metal. Arguing from this fact, Messrs. Martin 
claim that under the influence of such a high temperature, 
the carbon is to some extent spontaneously disassociated 
from the iron, and attribute in a measure to this fact that 
so small a proportion of wrought iron is required to effect 
the decarbonization of the pig. The coating of scale 
formed on the iron in the preliminary reheating which it 
undergoes before being charged into the furnace, also 
assists in the removal of the carbon. When the metal 
has been brought to the desired condition, it is tapped 
off at the rear of the furnace into ingot moulds placed on 
a railway car, and thus brought successively under the 
gutter. 

A considerable number of specimens of steel made by 
this process were exhibited, ranging in hardness from a 
metal too hard to be touched by a tool to a true wrought 
iron, intended to be used in the manufacture of armor 
plates. At Messrs. Martins' works, at Sireuil, the pro- 
cess has been in regular operation during the past two 
years for the manufacture of gun-barrels, and some re- 
markable specimens of these were exhibited. Thus there 
was one that had been tested with very large charges of 
powder and a heavy weight of shot, which, by very pal- 
pable bulging just behind the balls, testified as to the 
softness and toughness of the metal. In another, which 
had been burst by a similarly severe charge, the metal 
had merely torn open for a certain length of the barrel, 
and the lips so formed were simply folded back 180", 
without any sign of cracking. There were also shown 
specimens of tool-steel of excellent fracture, castings of 
pieces of machinery, such as gears and framing, and a 



BERARD AND MARTIN PROCESSES. 333 

large tube for a cannon of extremely soft metal, or melted 
iron, as it is named. 

The hardest variety of metal, called by the patentee 
"mixed metal," is considered suitable for castings which 
do not require to be worked by tools, but where great 
strength is required, such as hammer blocks and anvils, 
large gears, etc. By a subsequent process of annealing 
or discarbonization, carried on in a gas furnace, under 
the influence of an oxidizing flame, these castings may be 
softened so as to be quite malleable and easily worked, 
and they then retain the advantage of being free from 
blow-holes. This metal is produced by adding to a pre- 
liminary bath of say 1600 pounds of pig 2400 of wrought 
iron, and adding at the end 1200 pounds of pig. For 
tool-steel, to a bath of 1600 pounds of gray pig would be 
added 2600 pounds of puddled steel from the same pig, 
and at the end of the operation 400 to 500 pounds of 
spiegeleisen. For homogeneous metal, the preliminary 
bath at Sireuil is 1200 pounds of spiegeleisen, to which 
2000 pounds of soft iron, puddled to grain, from the same 
pig, is added, and at the end of the process 200 to 300 
pounds of the same pig is charged, to give the requisite 
amount of carbon. The softest metal of all, which, how- 
ever, has not as yet been made an article of regular manu- 
facture, is made in the same way, with the exception that 
the final charge of manganiferous pig is but 5 per cent, 
of the contents of the furnace. With certain kinds of 
gray charcoal pig this proportion rises, however, to 20 
per cent., since under the influence of the high tempera- 
ture they refine spontaneously with great rapidity. 

Messrs. Martins' patents also cover the use of ore 
either with or in place of the wrought iron or steel used 
for removing the carbon from the pig, and when this is 
used the progress of the -operation is much more rapid. 
It has the objection, however, that the slag formed attacks 
violently the bricks forming the sides of the furnace, and 
therefore requires frequent renewals. 

This process has the great practical advantage that all 
the scrap arising in the manufacture of any product, such 



334 APPENDIX. 

as the ends of bars, etc., is readily remitted in the fur- 
nace and immediately returned to the form of useful in- 
gots. 

The flame in the furnace is kept always slightly sur- 
charged with gas ; an effect which the use of the Siemens 
furnace renders easy and certain, and by this means the 
waste of the metal is always moderate. 

For the production of soft steel suitable for gun-bar- 
rels or for tires, this metal already enjoys considerable 
reputation in Europe, and, indeed, were it not for its ex- 
cellent quality, it would be impossible to sustain the 
manufacture at Sireuil, where there is neither iron nor 
coal, the latter being brought from England and the 
former from various parts of France. 

The results here stated were verified by a personal resi- 
dence of Mr. Slade during several weeks at the works at 
Sireuil, and the regular and commercial success of the 
process was in that way seen to be fully achieved. 

It is not asserted that cast-steel can be made as cheaply 
by this process as by the Bessemer ; but where a product 
of definite quality is to be produced day by day, without 
rejections to any considerable extent, the Martin process 
has a decided advantage over the Bessemer, and in com- 
parison with the crucible steel is decidedly less expensive. 
Its chief drawback would seem to lie in the difficulty of 
keeping the furnace in order, and only the most refractory 
materials will withstand the high heat required for its 
operation. As much as five tons of steel have been pro- 
duced by this process at a single heat, and there is no 
difficulty in combining the product of several furnaces 
where larger masses are desired, inasmuch as the temper 
of the heat in each furnace can be brought and maintained 
to exactly the same standard. It would seem also to pre- 
sent the best solution yet devised for the difficulty experi- 
enced by the accumulation of the ends of Bessemer steel 
rails, inasmuch as these can be used in lieu of the puddled 
iron required by the process. It is possible, also, to use 
old rails in the same manner, and, indeed, any old scrap, 
but the resulting quality of the steel will, to a great ex- 
tent, depend upon the quality of the old iron so used. 



TABLES 

SHOWING THE 

RELATIVE VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS 
AND MEASURES, &o. 



Measures 


of Length 




Millimetre 


= 


0.03937 


inch. 


Centimetre 


= 


0.393708 


« 


Decimetre 


= 


3.937079 


inches. 


Metre 


= 


39.37079 


u 


a 


=5 


3.2808992 


feet. 


a 


= 


1.093633 


yard. 


Decametre 


= 


32.808992 


feet. 


Hectometre 


= 


328.08992 


« 


Kilometre 


=' 


3280.8992 


(C 


« 


== 


1093.633 


yards. 


Myriametre 




10936.33 


u 


<( 


= 


6.2138 


miles. 


Inch (3^ yard) 


= 


2.539954 


centimetres. 


Foot (i yard) 


= 


3.0479449 


decimetres. 


Yard 


= 


0.91438348 metre. 


Fathom (2 yards) 


= 


1.82876696 


" 


Pole or perch (5| yards) = 


5.029109 


metres. 


Furlong (220 yards) 


= 


201.16437 


u 


Mile (1760 yards) 


= 


1609.3149 


(< 


Nautical mile 


= 


1852 


u 



(335) 



336 



VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH 



Superficial Measures. 



Square millimetre 


S= 


eh square 


inch. 


" 


a 




= 


0.00155 


u 


<( 


centimetre 


= 


0.155006 


a 


it 


decimetre 


= 


15.50059 " 


inches. 


u 


u 




= 


0.107643 « 


foot. 


a 


metre 


or centiare = 


1550.05989 " 


inches. 


it 


a 


it 


= 


10.764299 « 


feet.* 


it 


it 


a 


= 


1.196033 


yard 


Are 






== 


1076.4299 


feet. 


« 






= 


119.6033 " 


yards. 


<( 






=1 


0.098845 rood. 




Hectare 




= 


11960.3326 square 


yards. 


" 






= 


2.471143 acres. 




Square inch 




= 


645.109201 square millimetres. 


<( 


« 




= 


6.451367 " 


centimetres 


M 


foot 




= 


9.289968 « 


decimetres. 


il 


yard 




= 


0.836097 " 


metre. 


(( 


rod or 


perch 


= 


25.291939 " 


metres. 


Rood 


(1210 sq. yards) 


= 


10.116775 ares. 




Acre 


(4840 sq 


. yards) 


= 


0.404671 hectare. 






Measures of Capacity. 




Cubi 


c millirn 


etre 




= 0.000061027 cubic inch. 


it 


centimetre or millilitre = 0.061027 


« u 


10 " 


centimetres or 


centilitre = 0.61027 


n it 


100 " 


u 


u 


decilitre = 6.102705 


" inches 


1000 " 


it 


a 


litre 


•== 61.0270515 


<< u 


U It 


it 


K 


« 


= 1.760773 


imp'l pint. 


It It 


it 


(( 


u 


= 0.2200967 


" gal'n 


Decalitre 






= 610.270515 


cubic inches 


< 








= 2.2009668 


imp. gal'ns. 


Hectolitre 






= 3.531658 


cubic feet. 


< 






* 


= 22.009668 


imp. gal'ns. 


Cubic metre or stere or kilolitre = 1.30802 


cubic yard. 






« 


(i 


= 35.3165S07 


" feet. 


Myrialitre 






= 353.105807 


it n 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. 



337 



Cubic inch 
" foot 
" yard 



= 16.386176 cubic centimetres. 
— 28.315312 " decimetres. 

= 0.764513422 " metre. 



American Measures. 

Winchester or U.S. gallon (231 cub.in.) = 3.785209 litres. 

" " bushel(2150.42cub.in.)= 35.23719 " 

Chaldron (57.25 cubic feet) = 1621.085 

British Imperial Measures. 



Gill 




= 


0.141983 litre. 


Pint (£ gallon) 




= 


0.567932 " 


Quart (£ gallon) 




= 


1.135864 " 


Imperial gallon (277.2738 cub. in.) = 


4.54345797 litres. 


Peck (2 gallons) 




= 


9.0869159 " 


Bushel (8 gallons) 




= 


36.347664 


Sack (3 bushels) 




= 


1.09043 hectolitre. 


Quarter (8 bushels) 




= 


2.907813 hectolitres. 


Chaldron (12 sacks) 






13.08516 " 




Weights. 




Milligramme 


= 


0.015438395 troy grain. 


Centigramme 


= 


0.15438395 " " 


Decigramme 


= 


1.5438395 


« tt 


Gramme 


= 


15.438395 


" grains. 


u 


= 


0.643 


pennyweight. 


a 


= 


0.0321633 


oz. troy. 


a 


= 


0.0352889 


oz. avoirdupois. 


Decagramme 


= 


154.38395 


troy grains. 


u 


= 


5.64 


drachms avoirdupois 


Hectogramme 


= 


3.21633 


oz. troy. 


a 


= 


3.52889 


oz. avoirdupois. 


Kilogramme 


= 


2.6803 


lbs. troy. 


(C 


= 


2.205486 


lbs. avoirdupois. 


Myriagramme 


= 


26.803 


lbs. troy. 


a 


= 


22.05486 


lbs. avoirdupois. 


Quintal metrique = 


L00 1 


:ilog. = 220.5486 lbs. avoirdupois. 


Tonne = 1000 kilos- = 2205.486 " 


29 









338 



VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH 



Different authors give the following values for the gramme 
Gramme = 15.44402 troy grains. 
" = 15.44242 

" = 15.4402 " 

" = 15.433159 " 

" = 15.43234874 " 



AVOIRDUPOIS. 

Long ton = 20 cwt. = 2240 lbs. = 1015.649 kilogrammes. 

Short ton (2000 lbs.) = 

Hundred weight (112 lbs.) == 

Quarter (28 lbs.) = 

Pound = 16 oz. = 7000 grs. = 

Ounce = 16 dr'ms. = 437.5 grs. = 

Drachm = 27.344 grains = 



906.8296 " 

50.78245 " 

12.6956144 

453.4148 grammes. 
28.3375 
1.77108 gramme. 



TROY (precious metals). 

Pound = 12 oz. = 5760 grs. = 373.096 

Ounce = 20 dwt. = 480 grs. = 31.0913 

Pennyweight = 24 grs. = 1.55457 

Grain = 0.064773 



grammes. 



gramme. 



APOTHECARIES' (pharmacy). 

Ounce = 8 drachms = 480 grs. = 31.0913 
Drachm = 3 scruples = 60 grs. = 3.8869 
Scruple = 20 grs. = 1.29546 



gramme. 



gramme. 



CARAT WEIGHT FOR DIAMONDS. 

1 carat = 4 carat grains = 64 carat parts. 

" =3.2 troy grains. 

" = 3.273 " " 

" = 0.207264 gramme 

« = 0.212 

" = 0.205 " 

Great diversity in value. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. 339 

Proposed Symbols for Abbreviations. 



M— myria — 10000 


Mm 


Mg 


Ml 




K— kilo — 1000 


Km 


Kg 


Kl 




H— hecto — 100 


Hm 


Hg 


HI 


Ha 


D— deca — 10 


Dm 


Dg 


Dl 


Da 


Unit — 1 


metre — m 


gramme — g 


litre— 1 


are — a 


d— deci — 0.1 


dm 


dg 


dl 


da 


c — centi — 0.01 


cm 


eg 


cl 


ca 


m— milli — 0.001 


mm 


mg 


ml 








Km = Kilometre. HI = Hectolitre. eg = centigramme, 
c. cm = cm 3 = cubiG centimetre, dm 2 = sq. dm = square deci- 
metre. Kgm = Kilogrammetre. Kg° = Kilogramme degree. 



Celsius or Centigrade. 


Fahrenheit. 


Eeaumur. 





15° 


4- 5° 


22° 


— 


10 


+ 14 


— 8 





5 


-f 23 


— 4 




melting 


4- 32 


ice 


+ 


5 


4- 41 


+ 4 


4- 


10 


-j- 50 


+ 8 


+ 


15 


4- 59 


+ 12 


+ 


20 


-f 68 


+ 16 


-f 


25 


+ " 


+ 20 


+ 


30 


4- 8G 


+ 24 


+ 


35 


4- 95 


+ 28 


+ 


40 


4-104 


+ 32 


+ 


45 


4-113 


+ 36 


4- 


50 


4-122 


+ 40 


+ 


55 


4-131 


+ 44 


+ 


60 


4-140 


-h 48 


+ 


65 


4-149 


+ 52 


+ 


70 


4-158 


+ 56 


+ 


75 


4-167 


+ 60 


+ 80 


4-176 


+ 64 


+ 


85 


4-185 


+ 68 


+ 


90 


4-194 


+ 72 


+ 


95 


4-203 


+ 76 


4-100 boiling 


4-212 


water + 80 


4-200 


+392 


+ 160 


+300 


+572 


+240 


4-400 


+752 


+320 


4-500 


+932 


+400 



340 



VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH 







1° 


C. = 1° 


.8 


Ft 


1° 


c. 


xl 


= 1° Ft. 




1 


1° 


c. 


x! 


= 1° R. 




1 



Ft. x I = r 

Ft. x!-r 



c. 

R. 



1°R. X 
1°R. X 



=l c 



Ft. 
C. 



English. 



Calorie (French) = unit of heat 

= kilogramme degree 
It is the quantity of heat necessary to raise 1° C. the tempera- 
ture of 1 kilogramme of distilled water. 

Kilogrammetre = Kgra = the power necessary to raise 1 kilo- 
gramme, 1 metre high, in one second. It is equal to ^ z of a 
French horse power. An English horse power = 550 foot pounds, 
while a French horse power = 542.7 foot pounds. 

Ready-made Calculations. 



No. 
of 


Inches to 


Feet to 


Yards to 


Miles to 


Millimetres 


units. 


centimetres. 


metres. 


metres. 


Kilometres. 


to inches. 


1 


2.53995 


0.3047945 


0.91438348 


1.6093 


0.03937079 


2 


5.0799 


0.6095890 


1.82876696 


3.2186 


0.07874158 


3 


7.6199 


0.9143835 


2.74315044 


4.8279 


0.11811237 


4 


10.1598 


1.2197680 


3.65753392 


6.4373 


0.15748316 


5 


12.6998 


1.5239724 


4.57191740 


8.0466 


0.19685395 


6 


15.2397 


1.8287669 


5.48630088 


9.6559 


0.23622474 


7 


17.7797 


2.1335614 


6.40068436 


11.2652 


0.27559553 


8 


20.3196 


2.4383559 


7.31506784 


12.8745 


0.31496632 


9 


22.8596 


2.7431504 


8.22945132 


14.4838 


0.35433711 


10 


25.3995 


3.0479450 


9.14383480 


16.0930 


0.39370790 



No. 


Centimetres 


Metres to 


Metres to 


Kilometres 


Square inches 


of 


to inches. 


feet. 


yards. 


to miles. 


to square 


units. 










centimetres. 


1 


0.3937079 


3.2808992 


1.093(533 


0.6213824 


6.45136 


2 


0.7874158 


6.5617984 


2.187266 


1.2427648 


12.90272 


3 


1.1811237 


9.8426976 


3.280899 


1.8641472 


19.35408 


4 


1.5748316 


13.1235968 


4.374532 


2.4855296 


25.80544 


5 


1.9685395 


16.4044960 


5.468165 


3.1089120 


32.25680 


6 


2.3622474 


19.6853952 


6.561798 


3.7282944 


38.70816 


7 


2.7559553 


22.9662944 


7.655431 


4.3496768 


45.15952 


8 


3.1496632 26.2471936 


8.749064 


4.9710592 


51.61083 


9 


3.5433711 (29.5280928 


9.842697 


5.5924416 


58.06224 


10 


3.9370790 


32.8089920 


10.936330 


6.2138240 


64.51360 



WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES, ETC. 



341 



No. 


Square feet to 


Sq. yards to 


Acres to 


Square 


Sq. metres 


of 


sq. metres. 


sq. metres. 


hectares. 


centimetres 


to sq. feet. 


units. 








to sq. inches. 




1 


0.0929 


0.836097 


0.404671 


0.155 


10.7643 


2 


0.1858 


1.672194 


0.809342 


0.310 


21.5286 


3 


0.2787 


2.508291 


1.204013 


0.465 


32.2929 


4 


0.3716 


3.344388 


1.618684 


0.620 


43.0572 


5 


0.4645 


4.180485 


2.023355 


0.775 


53.8215 


6 


0.5574 


5.016582 


2.428026 


0.930 


64.5858 


7 


0.6503 


5.852679 


2.832697 


1.085 


75.3501 


8 


0.7432 


6.688776 


3.237368 


1.240 


86.1144 


9 


0.8361 


7.524873 


3.642039 


1.395 


96.8787 


10 


0.9290 


8.360970 


4.046710 


1.550 


107.6430 



No. 


Square metres 


Hectares 


Cubic inches 


Cubic feet to 


Cubic yards 


of 


to sq. yards. 


to acres. 


to cubic 


cubic metres. 


to cubic 


units. 






centimetres. 




metres. 


1 


1.196033 


2.471143 


16.3855 


0.02831 


0.76451 


2 


2.392066 


4.942286 


32.7710 


0.05662 


1.52902 


3 


3.588099 


7.413429 


49.1565 


0.08494 


2.29354 


4 


4.784132 


9.884572 


65.5420 


0.11325 


3.05805 


5 


5.980165 


12.355715 


81.9275 


0.14157 


3.82257 


6 


7.176198 


14.826858 


98.3130 


0.16988 


4.58708 


7 


8.372231 


17.298001 


114.6985 


0.19819 


5.35159 


8 


9.568264 


19.769144 


131.0840 


0.22651 


6.11611 


9 


10.764297 


22.240287 


147.4695 


0.25482 


6.88062 


10 


11.960330 


24.711430 


163.8550 


0.28315 


7.64513 



No. 


Cubic 


Litres to 


[ 
Hectolitres to 


Cubic metres 


Cubic metres 


of 


centimetres to 


cubic inches. 


cubic feet. 


to cubic feet. 


to cubic 


units. 


cubic inches. 








yards. 


1 


0.06102 


61.02705 


3.5317 


35.31659 


1.30802 


2 


0.12205 


122.05410 


7.0634 


70.63318 


2.61604 


3 


0.18308 


183.08115 


10.5951 


105.94977 


3.92406 


4 


0.24411 


244.10820 


14.1268 


141.26636 


5.23208 


5 


0.30514 


305.13525 


17.6585 


176.58295 


6.54010 


6 


0.36617 


366.16230 


21.1902 


211.89954 


7.84812 


7 


0.42720 


427.18935 


24.7219 


247.21613 


9.15614 


8 


0.48823 


488.21640 


28.2536 


282.53272 


10.46416 


9 


0.54926 


549.24345 


31.7853 


317.84931 


11.77218 


10 


0.61027 


610.27050 


35.3166 


353.16590 


13.08020 



29^ 



34:2 FKENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS, ETC. 



No. 


Grains 


Ounces avoir. 


Ounces troy 


Pounds avoir. Pounds troy 


of 


to grammes. 


to grammes. 


to grammes. 


to to 


units. 








kilogrammes, kilogrammes. 


1 


0.064773 


28.3375 


31.0913 


0.4534148 


0.373096 


2 


0.129546 


56.6750 


62.1826 


0.9068296 


0.746192 


3 


0.194319 


85.0125 


93.2739 


1.3602444 


1.119288 


4 


0.259092 


113.3500 


124.3652 


1.8136592 


1.492384 


5 


0.323865 


141.6871 


155.4565 


2.2670740 


1.865480 


6 


0.388638 


170.0250 


186.5478 


2.7204888 


2.238576 


7 


0.453411 


198.3625 


217.6391 


3.1739036 


2.611672 


8 


0.518184 


226.7000 


248.7304 


3.6273184 


2.984768 


9 


0.582957 


255.0375 


279.8217 


4.0807332 


3.357864 


10 


0.647730 


283.3750 


310.9130 


4.5341480 


3.730960 





1 Pounds per 








No. 


Long tons to square inch to 


Grammes to 


Grammes to 


Grammes to 


of 


tonnes of 1000 kilogrammes 


grains. 


ounces avoir. 


ounces troy. 


units. 


kilog. | per square 
I centimetre. 








1 


1.015649 


0.0702774 


15.438395 


0.0352889 


0.0321633 


2 


2.031298 


0.1405548 


30.876790 


0.0705778 


0.0643266 


3 


3.046947 


0.2108322 


46.315185 


0.1058667 


0.0964899 


4 


4.062596 


0.2811096 


61.753580 


0.1411556 


0.1286532 


5 


5.078245 


0.3513870 


77.191975 


0.1764445 


0.1608165 


6 


6.093894 


0.4216644 


92.630370 


0.2117334 


0.1929798 


7 


7.109543 


0.4919418 


108.068765 


0.2470223 


0.2251431 


8 


8.125192 


0.5622192 


123.507160 


0.2823112 


0.2573064 


9 


9.140841 


0.6324966 


138.945555 


0.3176001 


0.2894697 


10 


10.156490 


0.7027740 


154.383950 


0.3528890 


0.3216330 



No. 
of 

units. 


Kilogrammes 

to pouuds 
avoirdupois. 


Kilogrammes 

to pounds 

troy. 


Metric tonnes 
of 1000 kilog 
to long tons of 
2240 pounds. 


Kilog. per 
square milli- 
metre to 
pounds per 
square inch. 


Kilog. per 
square centi- 
metre to 

pounds per 
square inch. 


1 


2.205486 


2.6803 


0.9845919 


1422.52 


14.22526 


2 


4.410972 


5.3606 


1.9691838 


2845.05 


28.45052 


3 


6.616458 


8.0409 


2.9537757 


4267.57 


42.67578 


4 


8.821944 


10.7212 


3.9383676 


5690.10 


56.90104 


5 


11.027430 


13.4015 


4.9229595 


7112.63 


71.12630 


6 


13.232916 


16.0818 


5.91175514 


8535.15 


85.35156 


7 


15.438402 


18.7621 


6.8921433 


9957.68 


99.57682 


8 


17.643888 


21.4424 


7.8767352 


11380.20 


113.80208 


9 


19.849374 


24.1227 


8.8613271 


12802.73 


128.02734 


10 


22.054860 


26.8030 


9.8459190 


14225.26 


142.25260 



INDEX. 



Abbreviations, symbols for, 339 
Accidental steel, ]62 
Acier jwxde, 99 
Action of carbon, 91 

of beat on iron, 97 

of heat on steel, 47 

of manganese on silicon, 93 
Advantage of aluminium, 95 

of magnesium, 95 
^Ethalia rich in iron, 37 
Affinity, law of, 214 
Agricola does not mention raw 

metal, 40 
Aigle wire manufactory, 277 
Alcone's iron Hercules, 37 
Alexander's present of steel, 188 
Alkalies, action of, 118 

in charcoal, 76 
Allen's works, 314 
Alloy of iron, 85 

of iron with carbon, 88 

of iron and silicon, 94 

of steel, 218 

of steel and aluminium. 95 
Alps, manufacture of steel in, 102 
Alumina, estimation of, 137 
Aluminium, 95 
American measures, 337 

roads, iron for, 307 
Amount of carbon in steel, 325 

of carbon required, 103 
Analysis of carbonates of iron, 62 

of carbonates of manganese, 
92 

of cast steel, 87 

of cemented steel, 87 

of charcoal, 76 

of coals, 78 

of English irons, 302 



Analysis — 

of oligist iron, 64 

of steel, 130 

of Swedish iron, 322 

of Swedish pig metal, 66 

of Swedish steel, 322 
Ancient cutlers of Sheffield, 250 

knowledge of iron, 26 

metallurgists, 39 
Annealing, 227 

furnace for wire, 277 

of crucibles. 178 

of files, 259 

of steel wire, 277 
Anthracite, 82 
Antimony to form steel. 121 
Apothecaries' weight, 338 
Apparatus for granulation, 209 
Appendix, 299 
Arrangement of iron and charcoal, 

167 
Aristotle's account of iron, 28 
Asclepias gigantea, 189 
Ashes, 69 

Asthma, grinder's, 283 
Austria, 326 

the first to puddle steel, 44 
Avoirdupois weight, 338 
Axles, manufacture of, 319 

Ballefin, invention of, 187 

Barrow works, 304 

Baths, metallic, 234 

Baud, Pierre, great iron worker, 

42 
Bellows among Greeks and Ro- 
mans, 40 
first known, 34 
Indian, 190 



314 



INDEX. 



Berard and Martin processes, 330 
Berard's steel, 330 
Berselius' law of affinity, 214 
Bessemer plates, manufacture, 316 

steel, 299 
Bessemer's process, 201, 299 
Bilbao iron, 42 
Bilbilis, city of, 38 
Biscay celebrated for steel, 42 
Bituminous coal, 77 

early use of, 29 
Blacksmiths of importance, 32 
Blank cutting for files, 261 
Blast furnace first known, 40 

in 1409, 41 
Blast furnaces, English claim, 41 
in England, 300 
in France, 41 
Blast, how worked, 146 
Blazing off, 297 
Blistered steel, 99 
Block of steel, large, 186 
Blooms, 151 
Bog ore, 61 

Borax for welding. 227 
Botryoidal brown hasinatite, 67 
Brusque, 145 
Breakage of steel spontaneously, 

241 
Breaking weights of steel, 251 
Brezian steel, 158 
British imperial measures, 337 
Brockedon's proposed drawplates, 

275 
Bronze precedes steel, 27 
Brooman's process, 195 
Brown haematite, 61, 66 

ochre, 67 

oxide, 67 
Buried steel, 250 

Calatayud celebrated for steel 

manufactures, 38 
Calcium, 59 

estimation of, 138 
Calculations, ready-made, 340 
Callipers for wire, 280 
Calorific power, 48 
of coal, 78 
of wood, 71 
value of coke, 80 



Calorific value of fuels, 75 
Calvert's process, 194 
Capacity, measures of, 336 
Carat weight for diamonds, 338 
Carbides, 87 
Carbon, 68 

action of, 91 

amount of, 325 

how much wanted, 103 
Carbonates of iron, analysis of, 62 
Carbonate of iron, how known, 

61 
Carbon, estimation of, 132 
Carbonic acid, 53 

oxide, 53 
Carbonization, 74 

object of, 72 

of coal, 80 
Carbon, purest form, 86 

with iron, 86 
Carburets, 87 

of manganese, 92 
Carmel, mines of, 35 
Cassiu auricula ta, 189 
Cast metal first known, 40 

steel, 169 

analysis of, 87 
how made, 100, 142 
Catalan furnaces, 42 

fires or forges, 142 
Causes of change in structure of 

iron, 236 
Celtiberians bury steel, 249 
Cementation, 98, 163 

steel of, 162 
Cemented iron, first in Germany, 
43 

steel, 99 

analysis of, 87 

how made, 142 

Chnlybes celebrated for steel, 36 

Change in structure of iron. 236 

Characteristics of ores, 61 

of steel, 243 
Charcoal, 72 

alkalies in, 76 

analysis of, 76 

how made, 73 

object of, 72 

specific gravity, 76 

when to fell wood for, 73 



INDEX. 



345 



Choosing steel by signs, 246 

Charge for puddling, 159 

Charging furnaces, 145, 150, 181 

Chemistry, quantitative, 130 

Chenot process, 197 

Cherry coal, 77 

Chinese knowledge of steel, 26 

CMo, 102 

Chloride of sodium as a flux, 195 

Chromium, estimation of, 137 

and steel, 220 
Clark's horseshoe, 253 
Clays, refractory, 171 

working of, 172 
Cleaton iron, 302 
Coal, 77 

analysis of, 78 

calorific power of, 78 

carbonization of, 80 

how formed, 77 

specific gravity of, 78 
Coke, 77, 79 

calorific value of, 80 

natural, 81 

production of, 79 
Cold hammering, 241 
Colors, for tempering, 237 

showing heat, 237 
Combination of iron and oxygen, 
52 

of sulphur with iron, 54 
Comparative power of fuels, 49 
Composition of carburets, 87 

of wootz, 188 

Reaumer's best for steel, 127 
Contreveut, 145 
Cost of Austrian steel, 328 

of steel, 326 
Crucibles for making steel, 170 

Ballefin's invention for heat 
ing, 187 

moulds for, 173 

used by Reaumur, 107 
Cutlery, Sheffield, 43 
Cutting of blanks, 261 

saw teeth, 296 

Damascus steel, 211 

of Henri, 213 
Damaskeened fibres, 213 
Degrees of hardness, 215 



Demidoff irons, 256 
Diamond, purest carbon, 86 

carat weight, 338 
Diffusion of knowledge, 35 
Dilatation of steel, 48 
Dimensions of chests at Sheffield, 

165 
Diodorus mentions iron, 37 
Double cut files, 261 
Drawing, 223 
Draw plates, 274 
Drilling needles, 289 
Drying of crucibles, 178 

Earths, mixture of, 171 

Earthy materials, 68 

East early knows of iron and steel, 

36 
Edelstahl, 158 

Effects of exposure of iron, 55 
Electrical action of iron, 236 
Electricity in steel combustion, 88 
England, furnaces in, 300 

iron in, 300 

oldest knowledge of iron, 42 
English claim to invention of the 
blast furnace, 41 

counterfeit steel, 42 

fuel, 301 

irons, analysis of, 302 
Engraving on steel, 295 

steel plate for, 294 
Escola, 147 

Estimation of graphitic carbon, 
etc., 135 

of sulphur and phosphorus, 
133 

of the carbon, 132 
Etoffes, 218 

Expansion horseshoe, 2 "4 
Experiments of French, 210 

of Reaumur, 108 
Exposition, steel in, 299 
Exposure of iron, effects of, 55 

Fagersta works, 324 
Felling wood for charcoal, 73 
Fibrous texture in steel, 245 
Files, 256 

annealed, 259 

furnace for heating;, 262 



346 



INDEX. 



Filing, 270 
Filing files, 259 
Fine Brezian, 158 
Fire bricks, 172 
Flat files, 257 
Float, 270 
Floss, 154 

Foliaceous oxide, 67 
Forest of Dean iron, 302 
Forge test (cool), of steel plates, 
318 
(hot), of steel plates, 317 
Forge for files, 257 
Fontaine, 194 

Fox's patent for steel wire, 278 
France, blast furnaces in, 41 

steel works in, 44 
Frauds in steel by English, 42 
French experiments, 210 

exposition, 299 

files, 269 

works, 329 
Fuels, 48, 67 

calorific value, 75 

mineral, 68 

vegetable, 68 

used by ancients, 29 

used in England, 301 
Furnace at Sheffield, 165 

blast, 40 

English claim, 41 

for annealing wire, 277 

for cementation, 165 

for heating files, 262 
Furnaces for Indian steel, 1S9 

for fusing steel, 180 

for puddling, 158 

high bloomery, 39 

how charged, 145 

Siemen's, 310 

Catalan, 42 

blast, in France, 41 

in England, 300 

staff, 161 

of Sheffield, 181 
Fatty matters, action of, 114 

Galloway's mill, 314 

Gauges for wire, 280 

German steel, 157 

Germany, iron introduced into, 39 



Germany, the first to cement iron, 

43 
Gift of Porus, 188 
Gilt-headed needles, 289 
Glass, action of, 112 
Golconda steel, 216 
Granular iron, 67 
Granulating pig iron, 209 
Granulation, apparatus for, 209 
Graphite, 179 
Graphitic carbon, 131 

estimation of, 135 
Gravity, specific of charcoal, 76 

of coal, 78 

of steel, 244 
Greillade, 145 
Grinder's asthma, 2S3 
Grinding files, 259 
Grindstone, velocity of, 260 

why it bursts, 260 
Grooved wire, 281 
Gun-barrels of steel, 332 

Haematite, brown, 61 

red, 61, 64 
Half round files, 257 
Hammer early used, 34 
Hammer hardening, 241 

heavy, 319 

steam, 319 
Hammered steel, 225 
Hardening, 229 

needles, 286 

saws, 297 
Hardness, degrees of, 245 

required for tools, 233 
Hard woods, 71 

steel, proportions for, 216 
Harsh steel, 247 
Heaps, carbonization in. 73 
Heat, 47 

action on iron, 97 

from wood, 71 
Heating, furnace for files, 262 
Heat, proper for hardening, 231 

shown by color, 237 
Heavy hammers, 319 
Hebrew knowledge of steel. 25 
Henri's Damascus steel, 213 
Hewitt's report on steel, 299 
High bloomery furnaces, 39 



INDEX. 



347 



History of steel, 25 

Homer's mention of iron and steel, 

26 
Horseshoes of steel, 253 

of Mr. Clark, 254 
Houille grasse, 77 

maigre, 77 

seche, 77 
How to analyze steel, 131 
Hull iron trade, 254 
Hydrated oxide, 66 
Hydraulic wheels first used, 40 
Hydrous oxide of iron, 56, 61, 66 
Hydrogen, 68 

Imperial measures, British, 337 
India magnetic ore, 42 
Indian bellows, 190 

steel, 188 

furnaces for, 189 
Ingot mould, 185 
Instruments, temperatures for, 239 
Intermixed metals, 218 
Introduction, 25 
Invention of Ballefin, 187 
Iron, affinity of oxygen for, 51 

action of heat on, 97 

alloy with silicon, 94 

among the Phoenicians, 36 

analysis of, 64 

of carbonates of, 62 
of English, 302 
of Swedish, 322 

and Coal Company, Wigan, 
301 

and steel known in the East, 
36 

carburets or carbides, 87 

first cemented in Germany, 43 

for American roads, 307 

Forest of Dean, 302 

found in Mt. Ida, 35 

glance, 61 

granular, 67 

hydrous oxide of, 56 

in JEthalia, 37 

in Crete, 35 

in England, 300 

in Palestine, 31 

introduced into Germany, 39 

known to ancients, 26 



Iron — 

lithoid, 62 

mentioned by Diodorus, 37 

needles, 289 

of Bilbao, 42 

of cementation, 162 

of Demidoff, 256 

oldest knowledge in England 

42 
oligist, 63 
ores, 60 

pig, granulation of, 209 
pisolithic, 67 

size of, for making steel, 166 
structure of, 236 
tires, 252 

trade of Sweden, 255 
used by Romans, 34 
with carbon, 86 
with sulphur, 54 
worked by Moors, 38 

Johnson, T., great iron worker, 

42 
Juice of plants for hardening steel, 

113 

Kaolin, 171 

Kind of ore known to ancients, 32 

Kinds of wood, 71 

Kirkaldy's testing works, 324 

Krupp's steel works, 329 

Large block of steel, 186 
Law of affinity, 214 
Leached ashes, action of, 112 
Length, measures of, 335 
Lignine, 70 
Lime, 59 

action of, 110 

estimation of, 138 
Limonite, 61 

Locksmiths important men, 32 
Lohe works, 161 
Lithoid iron, 62 

Machine for making needles, 285 
Magma for files before hardening, 

265 
Magnesium, 95 

estimation of, 139 



348 



INDEX. 



Magnetic action on iron, 236 

iron, 61, 65 

ore in India, 42 
Magnetite, 61 
Magnets employed, 200 
Making groove of needle, 284 
Manganese, 91 

action of on silicon, 93 

an auxiliary, 186 

carburets of, 92 

in iron, 91 

use of in steel, 92 
Manory's process, 196 
Manufacture of axles, 319 

of Bessemer plates, 316 

of cast steel, 100 

of steel rails, 308 

of tires, 313 
Manufacturers' secrets, 101 
Marks, peculiar, of steel, 254 
Martien's process, 194, 197, 202 
Martin's steel, 331 
Materials from which to make 

steel, 141 
Measures, American, 337 

British imperial, 337 

of capacity, 336 

of length, 335 

superficial, 336 

tables of, 335 
Meilers, 73 

Mersey Iron and Steel Co., 304 
Metallic baths, 234 
Metallurgy of steel, 141 
Metal, mixed, 333 

works of Sarepta, 35 
Metals, intermixed, 218 

weight for precious, 338 
Mild steel, 247 
Mineral fuels, 68 
Minerals, action of, 121 
Mines of Carmel, 35 

of Mount Pangseus, 35 
Mirrors of steel, 220 
Mittel Kaehr, 158 
Mixed metal, 333 
Mixture of earths, 171 
Mock, 157 

Moors work in iron, 38 
Mould, ingot, 185 
Moulds for crucibles, 173 



Mount Ida, iron found in, 35 

Pangaeus, mines of, 35 
Mushet's process, 195 
Musical instrument wire, 282 

Nadir- Shah, sword of, 212 
Natural coke, 81 

steel, 142 

how made, 141 
Needles, 282 

pointing, 283 
Neuberg works, 326 
New processes, 192 
Newton's process, 194 
Nitric acid test, 243 
Nitrogen in steel, 132 
Nucleus ferri, 97 

Object of carbonization, 72 

of carbonizing coal, 81 

of wire drawing, 274 
Ochre, brown, 67 
Oils, action of, 114 
Oldest fact on iron in England, 42 
Oligist iron, 61, 63 
Ordinary Brezian, 158 
Ore, magnetic, in India, 42 
Ores, 60 

how distinguished, 61 
Oriental sabres, 217 
Oxide, brown, 67 

of iron, hydrous, 56, 61, 66 
Oxidulated iron, 65 
Oxygen, 50 

affinity for iron, 51 

Palestine iron mines, 31 

Parke's method of determining 

heat, 234 
Peculiar marks of steel, 254 
Piercing eyes of needles, 284 
Pharmacy, weight for, 338 
Phenomenon in formation of steel, 

89 
Phoenicians work iron, 36 
Phosphorus, 55 

estimation of, 133 
Pierre Baud, 42 
Pig-iron, 89 

granulating, 209 
metal known to ancients, 30 






INDEX. 



349 



Pisolithic iron, 67 
Pit coal, 77 
Planishing saws, 298 
Plates, test of steel. 317 

manufacture of Bessemer, 316 
Platinum steel, 220 
Plumbago, 179 
Pointing needles, 283 
Polishing needles, 287 
Pots for making steely -170 
Potter's clay, action of;Vlll 
Preliminary observations, 47 
Precious metals, weight for, 338 
Price & Nicholson's process, 196 
Principal works in Austria, 326 
Process of Berard, 330 

of Bessemer, 299 

of cast steel making, 184 

of hardening files, 266 

of Martin, 330 

of Martien, 194, 197, 202 

of Newton, 194 

of puddling, 159 
Production of coke, 79 
Properties of Austrian steel, 328 

of steel, 243 
Proportions for hard steel, 210 
Proposed symbols for abbrevia- 
tions, 339 
Prussia, chief manufacturer of wire 

for musical instruments, 282 
Puddled steel, 158 

first in Austria, 46 
Puddling, 159 

charge for, 159 

furnace, 158 

steel a recent invention, 43 
Pyrimac, 28 
Pyrenees, manufacture of steel in, 

102 
Pyrites, 54, 55 
Pyrometer to determine heat, 233 

Qualities of wire, 280 

Quantity of alkalies in charcoal, 

76 
Quantitative chemistry, 130 
Quotation from Reaumur, 104 



Railroad wheel tires, 
Rails, steel, 307 
30 



257 



Rails, steel-headed, 311 

steel, manufacture of, 308 
Ramsbotham's mill, 309 

works, 314 
Rasps, 261 
Raw iron, steel from, 148 

metal, 89 
Ready-made calculations, 340 
Reaumur's best composition for 

steel, 122 
Reaumur, reference to, 103 
Red chalk, 64 

haematite, 61 

hydrated oxide, 67 
Reduction zone, 52 
Refining, 223 
Refractory clays, 171 

ore, 39 
Renardieres, 142 

Report on steel in French Exposi- 
tion, 299 
Reticulated spongy oxide, 67 
Rhine, the first place where cast 

metal was made, 40 
Rhodium steel, 219 
Rodger's process, 195 
Roman steel, 158 

use of iron, 33 
Rostaing's apparatus for granula- 
tion, 203 
Round files, 257 
Rubber, 270 
Runs made by tires, 253 

Sabres, oriental, 217 

Salem, silicon in, 188 

Salt as a flux, 195 

Salts, action of, 114 

Sand, action of, 111 

Sanguine, 64 

Sarepta, metal works of, 35 

Saturation, 88 

Savage steel, 275 

Saws, 295 

hardening, 297 

planishing, 298 

straightening, 297 
Saw teeth, how cut, 296 
Scale of hardness, 246 
Scimetar of great value, 211 
Scouring needles, 287 



350 



INDEX. 



Scythe steel, 157 

Secret of filing, 270 

Secrets of steel manufacturers, 101 

Semi-bituminous coal, 77 

Shear steel, 225 

Sheffield cutlery, 43 

furnace, 165 

furnaces, 181 
Siegen, manufacture of steel in, 

157 
Siemen's furnace, 310 
Signs to choose steel, 246 
Silesia, manufacture of steel, 152 
Silica, estimation of, 135 
Silicon, 58 

alloy with iron, 94 

in Salem, 188 

manganese acts on 3 93 
Silver with steel, 218 
Single cut files, 261 
Sireuil, works at, 331 
Size of iron for making steel, 166 
Slacle's report on steel, 299 
Sodium, chloride of, 195 
Soft steel, 210 

woods, 71 
Solingen steel, 213 
Solution, 88 
Sorting needles, 288 
Sparry iron. 61 
Spathic iron, 61, 62 
Specific gravity of charcoal, 76 
of coal, 78 
of steels, 244 
Specular iron, 61 
Spiegeleisen, 202 
Splint coal, 77 

Spontaneous fracture of steel, 241 
Springs for watches, 281 
Staff of furnace, 161 
Steam hammers, 319 
Steel, action of heat on, 47 

alloys, 218 

amount of carbon in, 325 

analyses of, 130 

analyses of cast, 87 

analyses of cemented, 87 

blistered, 99 

breaking under the hammer, 
248 
weights, 251 



Steel- 
breaks spontaneously, 241 
characteristics of, 243 
cast, 169 

chosen by signs, 246 
crucibles for making, 170 
Damascus, 211 
dilatation of, 48 
from Golconda, 216 
from raw iron, 148 

metal, how made, 141 
from Sweden, 321 
furnaces for fusing, 180 
gun-barrels, 332 
headed rails, 311 
history of, 25 
horseshoes, 253 
how formed, 89 
how tested in Austria, 327 
in Austria, 326 
in French Exposition, 299 
its theory, 85 
made by the Chalybes, 36 
metallurgy of, 141 
of Berard, 330 
of Bessemer, 299 
of Biscay, 42 
of cementation, 162 
of Martin, 331 
mirrors, 220 
peculiar marks of, 254 
plate, 290 

test of, 317, 318 
puddled, 158 

first in Austria, 44 
rails, 307 

manufacture of, 308 
soft, 210 

specific gravity of, 244 
tablet horseshoe, 254 
tensile strength, 250 
tests in Austria, 327 
tires, 252 

uses and properties, 243 
wine cups, 37 
wire, 274 

with a fibrous texture, 245 
with chromium, 220 
with platinum, 220 
with rhodium, 219 
with silver, 218 



INDEX. 



351 



Steel- 
worked by Moors, 38 

■working, 223 

works in France, 44 
Steely iron, 97 
Sterling's process, 196 
St. Etienne, forge used at, 257 
Straightening files, 269 

saws, 297 

wire, 278 
Stripping files, 259 
Structure of iron, 236 
StucJc ofe?i, 39 

stahl, 157 
Styria, manufacture of steel, 157 
Substances to test hardness, 246 
Sulphur, 54 

estimation, 133 

to form steel, 121 

with iron, 54* 
Superficial measures, 336 
Sweden, 321 
Swedish irons, 95 

iron trade, 255 

pig metal, 66 
Sword of Nadir-Shah, 212 
Symbols, abbreviations for, 339 

Tables of weights and measures, 

335 
Take of a file, 271 
Tavernier's account of Golconda 

steel, 216 
Taylor process, 207 
Teeth, cutting saw, 296 
Temperatures for instruments, 239 
Tempering, 227, 235 

colors, 237 

needles, 286 
Tensile strength of steel, 250 

in Austria, 328 
Test by nitric acid, 243 

of steel plates, 317 
Tests of steel in Austria, 327 
Texture, trial of, 248 
Theory of steel, 85 
Thomas Johnson, 42 
Tilghman, 194 
Time, estimation of, 135 
Tires for railroad wheels, 257 

manufacture of, 313 



Tires, runs made by, 253 

Tilted steel, 225 

Tilting, 223 

Tongs, 34 

Tools, proper hardness for, 233 

Trial of files, 271 

of hardness, 248 

of texture, 248 
Triangular files, 257 
Trimming head of needles, 284 
Troy weight, 338 
Tungsten with steel, 96 

Uchatius process, 196, 208 
Union of iron and carbon, 86 
Ure's demonstration, 236 
Use of magnesium in steel, 95 

of manganese in steel, 92 
Uses of steel, 243 

of wire, 281 

Vegetable fuels, 68 
Velocity of grindstone, 260 

Warped files, 269 
Washing files, 273 
Waste in puddling, 161 
Watch springs, 281 
Water, 56 

best for hardening, 231 
Weardale iron, 302 
Weight, apothecaries, 338 

avoirdupois, 338 

for diamonds, 338 

troy, 338 
Weights, 337 

breaking of steel, 251 

tables of, 335 
Welding, 225 
Westphalia, manufacture of steel, 

152 
Wheel tires for railroads, 251 
When to fell wood for charcoal, 73 
Why grindstones burst, 261 
Wigan Iron and Coal Co., 301 
Wine cups of steel, 37 
Wire, 274 

drawing, 274 

for musical instruments, 282 

for needles, 282 

grooved, 281 



352 



INDEX. 



Wire- 
manufactory at Aigle, 277 
qualities of, 280 
uses of, 281 

Wood, 70 

calorific power of, 71 
kinds of, 71 

Woods, hard, 71 
soft, 71 

Wood's process for granulation, 
209 



Woody fibre, 70 
Wootz, 188 

steel, 41, 95 

how sold, 191 
Working of cast steel, 43 

of clays, 172 

of steel, 223 
Workington iron, 302 
Works at Sireuil, 331 



CATALOGUE 

OF 

PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

PUBLISHED BY 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 

3KTo- 406 -W^-LiZSTTTT STIREET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 



Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail,' 
free of postage, at the publication price. 

This Catalogue will be sent, free of postage, to any one who will 
furnish the publisher with his address. 



A RMENGAUD, AMOUROUX, AND JOHNSON— THE PRACTICAL 

""• DRAUGHTSMAN'S BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, AND 

MACHINIST'S AND ENGINEER'S DRAWING COMPANION: 

Forming a complete course of Mechanical Engineering and 
Architectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud 
the elder, Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and 
Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the younger and Amou- 
roux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten and arranged, with addi- 
tional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the 
most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. 
By William Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Editor of "The 
Practical Mechanic's Journal." Illustrated by 50 folio steel 
plates and 50 wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to. . $10 00 

A RROWSMITH.— PAPER-HANGER'S COMPANION : 

A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are 
Systematically laid down: with Copious Directions Prepara- 
tory to Papering; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on 
Walls; the Various Cements and Pastes adapted to the Seve- 
ral Purposes of the Trade; Observations and Directions for 
the Panelling and Ornamenting of Rooms, &c. ' By James 
Arrowsmith, Author of "Analysis of Drapery," &c. 12mo , 
cloth .....*... $1 2-5 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



T).\IRD.— THE AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, AND MANA- 
"° GER'S AND CARDER'S GUIDE : 

A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning; giving the Dimen- 
sions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calcula- 
tions, etc. ; with notices of recent Improvements : together 
with Rules and Examples for making changes in the sizes and 
numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the papers of 
the late Robert H. Baird. 12mo. . . . $1 50 

TDAKER.— LONG-SPAN RAILWAY BRIDGES : 

Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and 
Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type 
Systems of Construction; with numerous Formulae and Ta- 
bles. By B. Baker. 12mo $2 00 

■pAKEWELL.— A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY— PRACTICAL AND 
n THEORETICAL : 

By F. C. Bakewell, Inventor of the Copying Telegraph. Se- 
cond Edition. Revised and enlarged. Illustrated by nume- 
rous engravings. 12mo. Cloth . . . . $2 00 

"DEANS— A TREATISE ON RAILROAD CURVES AND THE LO- 
■° CATION OF RAILROADS : 

By E. W. Beans, C. E. 12mo. (In press.) 

-DLENKARN.— PRACTICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF WORKS EXE- 
n CUTED IN ARCHITECTURE, CIVIL AND MECHANICAL 

ENGINEERING, AKD IN ROAD MAKING AND SEWER- 

ING: 

To which are added a series of practically useful Agreements 
and Reports. By John Blenkarn. Illustrated by fifteen 
large folding plates. 8vo $9 00 

-DLINN.— A PRACTICAL WORKSHOP COMPANION FOR TIN, 
D SHEET-IRON, AND COPPER-PLATE WORKERS : 

Containing Rules for Describing various kinds of Patterns 
used by Tin, Sheet-iron, and Copper-plate Workers ; Practical 
Geometry ; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the 
Weight of Metals, Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Cir- 
cumferences of Circles ; Japans, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, 
Compositions, etc. etc. By Leroy J. Blinn, Master Me- 
chanic. With over One Hundred Illustrations. 12mo. $2 50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 3 

D DOTH.— MARBLE WORKER'S MANUAL: 

Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in gene- 
ral, their Cutting, Working, and Polishing ; Veneering of 
Marble ; Mosaics ; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, 
Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc. etc. Translated 
from the French by M. L. Booth. With an Appendix con- 
cerning American Marbles. 12mo., cloth . $1 50 

■pOOTH AND MORFIT.— THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMISTRY, 
- D PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL : 

Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, 
Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth, 
Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of 
Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by 
Campbell Morfit, author of "Chemical Manipulations," etc. 
Seventh edition. Complete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978 
pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. $5 00 

•pOWDITCH.— ANALYSIS, TECHNICAL VALUATION, PURIFI- 

■° CATION, AND USE OF COAL GAS : 

By Rev. W. R. Bowditch. Illustrated with wood engrav- 
ings. 8vo . $6 50 

OX.— PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS : 

A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc. 
By Thomas Box. 12mo $2 00 

TTJCKMASTER.— THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL PHYSICS : 

By J. C. Buckmaster, late Student in the Government School 
of Mines ; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of 
Science and Art; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the 
Royal College of Preceptors ; and late Lecturer in Chemistry 
and Physics of the Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated 
with numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo. . $2 00 

■pULLOCK.— THE AMERICAN COTTAGE BUILDER : 

A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to 
to $20,000 for Homes for the People ; together with Warm- 
ing, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Garden- 
ing. By John Bullock, Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechani- 
cian, and Editor of "The Rudiments of Architecture and 
Building," etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. In one vol. 
8vo $3 50 



B 



HENRY CARET BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



"POLLOCK. — THE RUDIMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE AND 
■*■* BUILDING: 

For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machin- 
ists, Engineers, and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, 
author of "The American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 
250 engravings. In one volume 8vo. . . . $3 50 

•pURGrH.— PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF LAND AND MA- 

n RINE ENGINES : 

Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of High and Low 
Pressure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together 
with Land and Marine Boilers. By N. P. Burgii, Engineer. 
Illustrated by twenty plates, double elephant folio, with text. 

$21 00 

TJURGH.— PRACTICAL RULES FOR THE PROPORTIONS OF 

P MODERN ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR LAND AND MA- 
RINE PURPOSES. 
By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. 12mo. . . . $2 00 

TJURGH.— THE SLIDE-VALVE PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED : 
By N. P. Burgh, author of " A Treatise on Sugar Machinery," 
"Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine Engines," "A 
Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for Designing Land and Ma- 
rine Engines, Boilers," etc. etc. etc. Completely illustrated. 
12mo $2 00 

TjYRN.— THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER : 

Or, Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of 
Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making 
Bavarian Beer, all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger- 
pop, Sarsaparilla-beer, Mead, Spruce beer, etc. etc. Adapted 
to the use of Public Brewers and Private Families. By M. La 
Fayette Byrn, M. D. With illustrations. 12mo. $125 

TjYRN.— THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER : 

Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Prac- 
tical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification ; 
including all of the most recent improvements in distilling 
apparatus ; instructions for preparing spirits from the nume- 
rous vegetables, fruits, etc. ; directions for the distillation and 
preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spiritu- 
ous and other compounds, etc. etc. ; all of which is so simpli- 
fied that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive distil- 
lers, but for every farmer, or others who may wish to engage 
in the art of distilling By M. La. Fayette Byrn, M. D. 
With numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo. $1 50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. £ 

■DYRNE.— POCKET BOOK FOR RAILROAD AND CIVIL ENGI- 



Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out 
Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the 
Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cut- 
tings ; Embankments ; Earth-work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. 
Illustrated, 18mo. . . . . . . . $1 25 

TJYRNE.— THE HANDBOOK FOR THE ARTISAN, MECHANIC, 

n AND ENGINEER : 

By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 11 large plates and 185 
Wood Engravings. 8vo. . . . . . . $5 00 

TjYRNE.— THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL ME- 
n CHANICS : 

For Engineering Students, based on the Principle of Work. 
By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by Numerous Wood Engrav- 
ings, 12mo $3 63 

"DYRNE.— THE PRACTICAL METAL-WORKER'S ASSISTANT : 
Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry ; the Arts of Working all 
Metals and Alloys ; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardening and 
Tempering ; Melting and Mixing ; Casting and Founding ; 
Works in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the 
Ductility of the Metals ; Soldering ; and the most Improved 
Processes and Tools employed by Metal-Workers. With the 
Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufactu- 
ring Processes ; collected from Original Sources, and from the 
Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, and 
others. By Oliver Byrne. A New, Revised, and improved 
Edition, with Additions by John Scoffern, M. B , William Clay, 
Wm. Fairbairn, F. R. S., and James Napier. With Five Hun- 
dred and Ninety-two Engravings ; Illustrating every Branch 
of the Subject. In one volume, 8vo. 652 pages . $7 00 

"DYRNE.— THE PRACTICAL CALCULATOR : 

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, 
Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 
1 volume, 8vo., nearly 600 pages . . . . $4 50 

CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE: 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for the Newest and M">st 
Elegant Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty eight Large 
and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one volume, oblong 

$5 00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



pALVERT.— LECTURES ON COAL-TAR COLORS, AND ON RE- 
U CENT IMPROVEMENTS AND PROGRESS IN DYEING AND 
CALICO PRINTING: 

Embodying Copious Notes taken at the last London Interna- 
tional Exhibition, and Illustrated with Numerous Patterns of 
Aniline and other Colors. By F. Grace Calvert, F. R. S., 
F. C. S., Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, Man- 
chester, Corresponding Member of the Royal Academies of 
Turin and Rouen ; of the Pharmaceutical Society of Paris ; 
Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse, etc. In one volume, 8vo., 
cloth $1 50 

p AMPIN.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL EN- 

U GINEERING: 

Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, 
Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture 
of Steam-engines, etc. etc. With an Appendix on the Ana- 
lysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. To 
which are added, Observations on the Construction of Steam 
Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Preven- 
tion; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E., 
and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels 
for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting 
Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, including 
Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and 
Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 
8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings. 

$G 00 

pAMPIN.— THE PRACTICE OF HAND-TURNING IN WOOD, 
U IVORY, SHELL, ETC. : 

With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be 
required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also, 
an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By Francis Campin ; 
with Numerous Illustrations, 12mo., cloth . . $3 00 

p \PRON DE DOLE.— DUSSAUCE.— BLUES AND CARMINES OF 
^ INDIGO. 

A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial 
Product derived from Indigo. By Felicien Capron de Dole. 
Translated, with important additions, by Professor II. Dus- 
sauce, 12mo. $2 50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



pAREY.— THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY: 

CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RE- 
SUMPTION? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo. 38 

FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper 

25 

HARMONY OF INTERESTS; Agricultural, Manufacturing, 

and Commercial. 8vo., paper . . . . . $1 00 

Do. do. cloth . . . $1 50 

LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
Paper 75 

MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's 
"Principles of Social Science." By Kate McKean. 1vol. 
12mo $2 25 

MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising "Harmony of Inter- 
ests," "Money," "Letters to the President," "French and 
American Tariffs," "Financial Crises," "The Way to Outdo 
England without Fighting Her," "Resources of the Union," 
"The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion," "Review 
of the Decade 1857 — '67," "Reconstruction," etc. etc. 1 vol. 
8vo., cloth $4 50 

MONEY: A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geographical and Sta- 
tistical Society. 8vo., paper ..... 25 

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo. . . . $2 50 

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo., cloth 

$10 00 

REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1857— '67. 8vo., paper 38 

RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND PO- 
LITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo. 
paper ...... . . 38 

THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL. How to 

provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxa- 
tion. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commis- 
sion. 8vo., paper ....... 25 

THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec. 
1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical So- 
ciety, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Social Science, Boston ... 25 

THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it 
Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., cloth $150 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD"S CATALOGUE. 



THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT FIGHTING 
HER. Letters to the Hon. Schuyler Colfax, Speaker of the 
House of Representatives United States, on "The Paper Ques- 
tion," "The Farmer's Question," "The Iron Question," "The 
Railroad Question," and "The Currency Question." 8vo., 
paper 75 

QHEVALIER.-THE PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDENT. 

A Complete Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Photo- 
graphy. Translated from the French of A. Chevalier. Il- 
lustrated by numerous engravings. (In press.) 

HLOUGH.— THE CONTRACTOR'S MANUAL AND BUILDER'S 
U PRICE-BOOK: 

Designed to elucidate the method of ascertaining, correctly, 
the value and Quantity of every description of Work and Ma- 
terials used in the Art of Building, from their Prime Cost in 
any part of the United States, collected from extensive expe- 
rience and observation in Building and Designing; to which 
are added a large variety of Tables, Memoranda, etc., indis- 
pensable to all engaged or concerned in erecting buildings of 
any kind. By A. B. Clough, Architect, 24mo., cloth 75 

nOLBURN.— THE GAS-WORKS OF LONDON: 

Comprising a sketch of the Gas-works of the city, Process of 
Manufacture, Quantity Produced, Cost, Profit, etc. By Zerah 
Colburn. 8vo., cloth 75 

riOLBURN.— THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE : 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimat- 
ing its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construc- 
tion and Management. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. A 
new edition. 12mo $1 25 

nOLBURN AND MAW.— THE WATER- WORKS OF LONDON : 
Together with a Series of Articles on various other Water- 
works. By Zerah Colburn and W. Maw. Reprinted from 
"Engineering." In one volume, 8vo. . . $1 00 

TjAGUERREOTYPIST AND PHOTOGRAPHER'S COMPANION: 
** 12mo., cloth $1 25 

TJAVIS— A TREATISE ON HARNESS, SADDLES, AND BRI- 
U DLES : 

Their History and Manufacture from the Earliest Times down 
to the Present Period. By A. Davis, Practical Saddler and 
Harness Maker. (In press.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



TpSSOYE.— STEEL, ITS MANUFACTURE, PROPERTIES, AND 

■^ USE. 

By J. B. J. Dessoye, Manufacturer of Steel; with an Intro- 
duction and Notes by Ed. Graten, Engineer of Mines. 
Translated from the French. In one volume, 12mo. (In press.) 

"HIRCES.— PERPETUAL MOTION : 

Or Search for Self-Motive Power during the 17th, 18th, and 
19th centuries. Illustrated from various authentic sources in 
Papers, Essays, Letters, Paragraphs, and numerous" Patent 
Specifications, with an Introductory Essay by Henry Dircks, 
C. E. Illustrated by numerous engravings of machines. 
12mo., cloth . $3 50 

IXON.— THE PRACTICAL MILLWRIGHT'S AND ENGINEER'S 
GUIDE : 

Or Tables for Finding the Diameter and Power of Cogwheels ; 
Diameter, Weight, and Power of Shafts ; Diameter and Strength 
of Bolts, etc. etc. By Thomas Dixon. 12mo., cloth. $1 50 

UNC AN.— PRACTICAL SURVEYOR'S GUIDE: 

Containing the necessary information to make any person, of 
common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of 
a teacher. By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. 

$1 25 
USSAUCE.— A NEW AND COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE 
ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, AND LEATHER DRESS- 
ING : 

Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in 
France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from 
Notes and Documents of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, 
Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Rene", De Fontenelle, Mala- 
peyre, etc. etc. By Prof. H. Dussauce, Chemist. Illustrated 
by 212 wood engravings. 8vo $10 00 

TjUSSAUCE.— A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE 
U OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF SOAP : 



D 



D 



D 



Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, with Remarks on Alka- 
lies, Saponifiable Fatty Bodies, the apparatus necessary in a 
Soap Factory, Practical Instructions on the manufacture of 
the various kinds of Soap, the assay of Soaps, etc. etc. Edited 
from notes of Larme, Fontenelle, Malapeyre, Dufour, and 
others, with large and important additions by Professor H. 
Dussauce, Chemist. Illustrated. In one volume, 8vo. (In 
press.) 



10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

TJUSSAUCE.— A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE PERFUMER : 
Being a New Treatise on Perfumery the most favorable to the 
Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comprising a 
Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Form- 
ulas of more than one thousand Preparations, such as Cosme- 
tics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinc- 
tures, Infusions, Yinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams, 
Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described. 
Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lunel, 
etc. With additions by Professor H. Dussauce, Chemist. (In 
press, shortly to be issued.) 

TjUSSAUCE.— PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FABRICATION 

^ OF MATCHES, GUN COTTON, AND FULMINATING POW- 
DERS. 
By Professor H. Dussauce. 12mo. . . . $3 00 

■nUSSAUCE.— TREATISE ON THE COLORING MATTERS DE- 

- U RIVED FROM COAL TAR : 

Their Practical Application in Dyeing Cotton, Wool, and Silk; 
the Principles of the Art of Dyeing and of the Distillation of 
Coal Tar, with a Description of the most Important New Dyes 
now in use. By Prof. H. Dussauce. 12mo. . $3 00 

TJYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION : 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Co- 
lors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles 
and fabrics now in existence ; with the Scouring Process, and 
plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the 
Goods. In one vol. 12mo $1 25 

T7ASTON.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON STREET OR HORSE- 

"k POWER RAILWAYS : 

Their Location, Construction, and Management ; with General 
Plans and Rules for their Organization and Operation; toge- 
ther with Examinations as to their Comparative Advantages 
over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries as to their Value for 
Investment; including Copies of Municipal Ordinances relat- 
ing thereto. By Alexander Easton, C. E. Illustrated by 23 
plates, 8vo., cloth $2 00 

-pRNL— COAL OIL AND PETROLEUM : 

Their Origin, History, Geology, and Chemistry; with a view of 
their importance in their bearing on National Industry. By 
Dr. Henri Erni, Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture. 
12mo $2 50 



HENRY CARET BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 11 

TONI — THE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY OF 

■ FERMENTATION : 

Comprising the Chemistry of Wine, Beer, Distilling of Liquors; 
■with the Practical Methods of their Chemical Examination, 
Preservation, and Improvement — such as Gallhring of Wines. 
With an Appendix, containing well-tested Practical Rules and 
Receipts for the manufacture, etc., of all kinds of Alcoholic 
Liquors. By Henry Erni, Chief Chemist, Department of 
Agriculture. (In press.) 

■DAIRBAIRN.— THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM AND MA- 

L CHINERY OF TRANSMISSION : 

Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplings of Shafts, and 
Engaging and DiseDgaging Gear. By William Fairbairn, 
Esq., C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S., Corresponding Member 
of the National Institute of France, and of the Royal Academy 
of Turin ; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, etc. etc. Beau- 
tifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume 12mo. 

$2 50 

pAIRBAIRN.— PRIME-MOVERS : 

Comprising the Accumulation of Water-power ; the Construc- 
tion of Water-wheels and Turbines; the Properties of Steam; 
the Varieties of Steam-engines and Boilers and Wind-mills. 
By William Fairbairn, C. E , LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S. Au- 
thor of "Principles of Mechanism and the Machinery of Trans- 
mission." With Numerous Illustrations. In one volume. (In 
press.) 

■DLAMM— A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO TEE CONSTRUCTION OF 
L ECONOMICAL HEATING APPLICATIONS FOR SOLID AND 
GASEOUS FUELS : 

With the Application of Concentrated Heat, and on Waste 
Heat, for the Use of Engineers, Architects, Stove and Furnace 
Makers, Manufacturers of Fire Brick, Zinc, Porcelain, Glass, 
Earthenware, Steel, Chemical Products, Sugar Refiners, Me- 
tallurgists, and all others employing Heat. By M. Pierre 
Flamm, Manufacturer. Illustrated. Translated from the 
French. One volume, 12mo. (In press.) 

niLBART.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING: 

By James William Gilbart. To which is added: The Na- 
tional Bank Act as now (1868) in force. 8vo. $4 50 



12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



G 



G 



OTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET MAKERS : 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Il- 
lustrated by twenty-three large and beautifully engraved 
plates. Oblong $3 00 

RANT.— BEET-ROOT SUGAR AND CULTIVATION OF THE 
BEET : 
By E. B. Grant. 12mo $1 25 

GREGORY —MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN : 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, 
and Civil Engineers. By Olinthtjs Gregory. 8vo., plates, 
cloth . $3 00 

riRISWOLD.— RAILROAD ENGINEER'S POCKET COMPANION. 

Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and 
Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary 
Tables for Engineers ; also the art of Levelling f: om Prelimi- 
nary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Ex- 
pressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valu- 
able Rules and Examples. By W. Griswold. 12mo., tucks. 

$1 25 
QUETTIER.— METALLIC ALLOYS : 

Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Pro- 
perties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated 
from the French of A. Guettier, Engineer and Director of 
Founderies, author of " La Fouderie en France," etc. etc. By 
A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo. 
(In press, shortly to be published.) 

TTATS AND FELTING: 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical 
Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, &c, 8vo. 

TTAY.— THE INTERIOR DECORATOR : 

The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior Decora- 
tions: with a Practical Treatise on House-Painting. By D. 
R. Hay, House-Painter and Decorator. Illustrated by a Dia- 
gram of the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors. 12mo. 

$2 25 



H 



UGHES.— AMERICAN MILLER AND MILLWRIGHT'S AS- 
SISTANT : 

By Wm. Carter Hughes. A new edition. In one volume, 
12mo • $i b'<) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 13 

IT UNT.— THE PRACTI JE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 

By Robert Hunt, Vice-President of the Photographic Society, 
London, with numerous illustrations. 12mo., cloth . 75 

JXURST.— A HAND-BOOK FOR ARCHITECTURAL SURVEYORS : 

Comprising Formulae useful in Designing Builder's work, Table 
of Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda 
connected with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of 
Builders' Measurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Pro- 
perty, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc. etc. By 
J. F. Hurst, C. E. 2d edition, pocket-book form, full bound 

$2 50 
TERVIS— RAILWAY PROPERTY : 

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways ; 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Mana- 
gers, Officers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Chief 
Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, &c. 
One vol. 12mo., cloth $2 00 

JOHNSON.— A REPORT TO THE NAVY DEPARTMENT OF THE 
U UNITED STATES ON AMERICAN COALS : 

Applicable to Steam Navigation and to other purposes. By 
Walter R. Johnson. With numerous illustrations. 607 pp. 
8vo., half morocco $6 00 

JOHNSON— THE COAL TRADE OF BRITISH AMERICA : 

With Researches on the Characters and Practical Values of 
American and Foreign Coals. By Walter R. Johnson, Civil 
and Mining Engineer and Chemist. 8vo. . . . $2 00 

JOHNSTON.— INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS, 
" LIMESTONES, AND MANURES. 

By J. W. F. Johnston. 12mo 38 

T7-EENE.— A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL GAUGING, 

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added A Chapter on Dis- 
tillation, describing the process in operation at the Custom 
House for ascertaining the strength of wines. By James B. 
Keene, of H. M. Customs. 8vo $1 25 

J7-ENTISH— A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Lo- 
garithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measur- 
ing of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. 
By Thomas Kentish. In one volume. 12mo. . $1 25 



14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



TZOBELL.—ERNL— MINERALOGY SIMPLIFIED : 

A short method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by 
means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. 
Translated from the last German Edition of F. Von Kobell, 
■with an Introduction to Blowpipe Analysis and other addi- 
tions. By Henri Erni, M. D., Chief Chemist, Department of 
Agriculture, author of " Coal Oil and Petroleum." In one 
volume, 12mo. $2 50 

TAFFINEUR— A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO HYDRAULICS FOR 
Jj TOWN AND COUNTRY; 

Or a Complete Treatise on the Building of Conduits for Water 
for Cities, Towns, Farms, Country Residences, Workshops, etc. 
Comprising the means necessary for obtaining at all times 
abundant supplies of Drinkable Water. Translated from 
the French of M. Jules Laffineur, C. E. Illustrated. (In 
press.) 

T AFFINEUR.— A TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF WA- 
JJ TER- WHEELS : 

Containing the various Systems in use with Practical Informa- 
tion on the Dimensions necessary for Shafts, Journals, Arms, 
etc , of Water-wheels, etc. etc. Translated from the French 
of M. Jules Laffineur, C. E. Illustrated by numerous 
plates. (In press.) 

T ANDRIN.— A TREATISE ON STEEL : 

Comprising the Theory, Metallurgy, Practical Working, Pro- 
perties, and Use. Translated from the French of H. C. Lan- 
drin, Jr., C. E. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. 
Illustrated. 12mo. (In press.) 

T ARKIN.—THE PRACTICAL BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S 
■" GUIDE : 

A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals 
and their Alloys, etc. ; to which are added Recent Improve- 
ments in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Pro- 
cess, etc. etc. By James Labkin, late Conductor of the Brass 
Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, 
Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with Extensive addi- 
tions. In one volume, 12mo. . . . . . $2 25 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 15 

T EAVITT.— FACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL : 

With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities 
in which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manu- 
facture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable; toge- 
ther with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Inte- 
rest. To which is added a chapter on the Utilization of Coal 
Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at 
Moderate Cost, especially adapted for Steam Service. By H. 
T. Leavitt. Third edition. 12mo. . . . $ 1 75 

T EROUX.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON WOOLS AND WOR- 
Jj STEDS : 

Translated from the French of Charles Leroux, Mechanical 
Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill. Illustrated 
by 12 large plates and 34 engravings. In one volume 8vo. 

(In press, shortly to be published.} 

TESLIE (MISS).— COMPLETE COOKERY: 

Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss 
Leslie. 58th thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addi- 
tion of New Receipts. In 1 vol. 12mo., cloth . . $1 25 
TESLIE (MISS). LADIES' HOUSE BOOK: 

a Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo., 
cloth $1 25 

TESLIE (MISS).— TWO HUNDRED RECEIPTS IN FRENCH 
n COOKERY. 

12mo 50 

T LEBER.— ASSAYER'S GUIDE : 

Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for 
the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the 
Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and 
Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. 12mo., cloth 

$1 25 

T OVE.— THE ART OF DYEING, CLEANING, SCOURING, AND 

- 1 - 1 FINISHING : 

On the most approved English and French methods; being 
Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons, 
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc ; Scouring and Cleaning Bed and 
Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc.; French and English 
Cleaning, any Color or Fabric of Silk, Satin, or Damask. By 
Thomas Love, a Working Dyer and Scourer. In 1 vol. 12mo. 

§3 00 



16 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



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UN AND BR3WN— 1USSTIONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED 
WITH THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE : 

And Examination Papers ; with Hints for their Solution. By 
Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval Col- 
lege, and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo., cloth 

$1 50 

AIN AND BROWN —THE INDICATOR AND DYNAMOMETER: 
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engiue. By 
Thomas J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't Prof. Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief En- 
gineer, R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 
From the Fourth London Edition. 8vo. . . . $1 50 

AIN AND BROWN.— THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE. 
By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at 
Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E. 
Chief Engineer, R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval College. 
Authors of " Questions connected with the Marine Steam-Eu- 
gine," and the "Indicator and Dynamometer." With nume- 
rous Illustrations. In one volume, 8vo. . . . $5 00 

AKINS— A MANUAL OF METALLURGY : 
More particularly of the Precious Metals: including the Meth- 
ods of Assaying them. Illustrated by upwards of 50 Engrav- 
ings. By Gkorgb Hogarth Makins, M. R. C. S., F. C. S., one 
of the Assayers to the Bank of England, Assayer to the Anglo- 
Mexican Mints, and Lecturer upon Metallurgy at the Dental 
Hospital, London. In one volume, 12mo. . . $3 50 

ARTIN —SCREW-CUTTING TABLES, FOR THE USE OF ME- 
CHANICAL ENGINEERS : 

Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the 
Threads of Screws of any required Pitch ; with a Table for 
Making the Universal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. 
Martin, Engineer. 8vo. 50 

ILES— A PLAIN TREATISE ON HORSE-SHOEING. 
With illustrations. By William Miles, author of "The 
Horse's Foot," $1 00 

DLESWORTH. POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL FORMULA AND 
MEMORANDA FOR CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGI- 
NEERS. 

By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of 
Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Rail- 
way. Second American, from the Tenth London Edition. In 
one volume, full bound in pocket-book form . . $2 00 



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HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 17 

TWTOORE.— THE INVENTOR'S GUIDE: 

Patent Office and Patent Laws ; or, a Guide to Inventors, and 
a Book of Reference for Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and 
others. By J. G. Moore. 12mo., cloth . . $1 25 
lyrDREAU.— PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE JEWELLER, 

In the Application of Harmony of Colors in the Arrangement 
of Precious Stones, Gold, etc., from the French of M. L. Mo- 
reatj, Jeweller and Designer. Illustrated. (In press.) 

JTAPIER— CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO DYEING. 

By James Napier, F. C. S. A new and revised edition, 
brought down to the present condition of the Art. Illustrated. 
(In press.) 

APIER.— A MANUAL OF DYEING RECEIPTS FOR GENERAL 
USE. 

By James Napier, F. C S. With Numerous Patterns of Dyed 
Cloth and Silk. Second edition, revised and enlarged. 12ino. 

$3 75 
APIER.— MANUAL OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY: 
Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Pro- 
cesses. By James Napier. Fourth American, from the 
Fourth London edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by 
engravings. In one volume, 8vo. . . . . $2 00 

"M-EWBERY. — GLEANINGS FROM ORNAMENTAL ART OF 

1N EVERY STYLE ; 

Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, In- 
dian, Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 
1851 and 1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In 
a series of one hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing 
many hundred examples. By Robert Newrert. 4to. $15 00 

fJICHOLSON.— A MANUAL OF THE ART OF BOOK-BINDING : 

Containing full instructions in the different Branches of For- 
warding, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling 
Book-edges and Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illus- 
trated. 12mo., cloth $2 25 

"VTORRIS.— A HAND-BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS AND 
1N MACHINISTS : 

Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing 
Locomotives ; Manner of Setting Valves ; Tables of Squares, 
Cubes, Areas, etc. etc. By Septimus Norris, Civil and Me- 
chanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated, 12mo., cloth 

$2 00 



18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

-|\TYSTR0M. — ON TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND THE 
U CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS : 

For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late 
Acting Chief Engineer U. S. N. Second edition, revised with 
additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo. 

$2 50 

(TNEILL.— CHEMISTRY OF CALICO PRINTING, DYEING, AND 

U BLEACHING : 

Including Silken, Woollen, and Mixed Goods ; Practical and 
Theoretical. By Charles O'Neill. (In press.) 

(TNEILL — A DICTIONARY OF CALICO PRINTING AND DYE- 
U ING: 

Containing a Brief Account of all the Substances and Processes 
in Use in the Arts of Printing and Dyeing Textile Fabrics; with 
Practical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles 
O'Neill, Analytical Chemist, Fellow of the Chemical Society 
of London, etc. etc. Author of " Chemistry of Calico Print- 
ing and Dyeing." 8vo. (In press.) 

(TVERMAN— OSBORN— THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON IN ALL 
U ITS BRANCHES: 

Including a Practical Description of the various Fuels and 
their Values, the Nature, Determination and Preparation of 
the Ore, the Erection and Management of Blast and other Fur- 
naces, the characteristic results of Working by Charcoal, 
Coke, or Anthracite, the Conversion of the Crude into the va- 
rious kinds of Wrought Iron, and the Methods adapted to this 
end. Also, a Description of Forge Hammers, Rolling Mills, 
Blast Engines, &c. &c. To which is added an Essay on the 
Manufacture of Steel. By Frederick Overman, Mining En- 
gineer. The whole thoroughly revised and enlarged, adapted 
to the latest Improvements and Discoveries, and the particular 
type of American Methods of Manufacture. With various 
new engravings illustrating the whole subject. By H. S. Os- 
born, LL. D. Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafay- 
ette College. In one volume, 8vo. (In press.) . $10 00 

pAJNTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION: 

Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to 
the Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining, 
with numerous useful and valuable Receipts; Tests for the 
Detection of Adulterations in Oils and Colors, and a statement 
of the Diseases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and 



p 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 19 

Varnishers are particularly liable, with the simplest methods 
of Prevention and Remedy. With Directions for Graining. 
Marbling, Sign Writing, and Gilding on Glass. To which are 
added Complete Instructions for Coach Painting and Var- 
nishing. 12mo., cloth . ... $1 50 
1LLETT.— THE MILLER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, AND ENGI- 
NEER'S GUIDE. 
By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. In one vol. 12mo. $3 00 
piRKINS.— GAS AND VENTILATION. 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Re- 
lation to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Includ- 
ing Scientific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With 
illustrated Diagrams. By E. E. Perkins. 12mo., cloth $125 

pERKINS AND STOWE.— A NEW GUIDE TO THE SHEET- 
r IRON AND BOILER PLATE ROLLER : 

Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and 
Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and 
the Sizes of Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the 
Bar Gauge in Decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thick- 
ness on the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an 
inch; the Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire 
Gauge of Sheet-iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. 
per bundle ; and the conversion of Short Weight into Long 
Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and collected 
by G. H. Perkins and J. G. Stowe . . . . $2 50 

PHILLIPS AND DARLINGTON —RECORDS OF MINING AND 
r METALLURGY : 

Or Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and 
Smelter. By J. Arthur Phillips, Mining Engineer, Graduate 
of the Imperial School of Mines, France, etc., and John Dar- 
lington. Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one vol- 
ume, 12mo $2 00 

pRADAL, MALEPEYRE, AND DUSSAUCE. — A COMPLETE 
r TREATISE ON PERFUMERY: ' 

Containing notices of the Raw Material used in the Art, and the 
Best Formulae. According to the most approved Methods fol- 
lowed in France, England, and the United States. By M. 
P. Pradal, Perfumer Chemist, and M. F. Malepeyre. Trans- 
lated from the French, with extensive additions, by Professor 
H. Dussauce. 8vo. $10 00 



20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

pROTEAUX— PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE MANUFACTURE 

£ OF PAPER AND BOARDS. 

By A. Proteaux, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School 
of Arts and Manufactures, Director of Thiers's Paper Mill, 
'Puy-de-D6nie. "With additions, by L. S. Le Normand. 
Translated from the French, with Notes, by Horatio Paine, 
A. B., M. D. To which is added a Chapter on the Manufac- 
ture of Paper from Wood in the United States, by Henry T. 
Brown, of the "American Artisan." Illustrated by six plates, 
containing Drawings of Raw Materials, Machinery, Plans of 
Paper-Mills, etc. etc. 8vo. . . . . . . $3 00 

■DEGNAULT— ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. 

By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. 
Forrest Betton, M.D., and edited, with notes, by James C. 
Booth, Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and Wm. L. Faber, 
Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 
• wood engravings. Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two 
volumes, 8vo., cloth $10 00 

OELLERS.— THE COLOR MIXER : 

Containing nearly Four Hundred Receipts for Colors, Pastes, 
Acids, Pulps, Blue Vats, Liquors, etc. etc., for Cotton and 
"Woollen Goods: including the celebrated Barrow Delaine Co- 
lors. By John Sellers, an experienced Practical Workman. 

In one volume, 12mo. $2 50 

OHUNK— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAILWAY CURVES 
^ .AND LOCATION, FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS. 

By Wm. F. Shunk, Civil Engineer. 12mo. . . $1 50 

OMEATON— BUILDER'S POCKET COMPANION: 

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Archi- 
tecture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with 
the subject. By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. In 
one volume, 12mo $1 25 

qMITH— THE DYER'S INSTRUCTOR: 

Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, 
Cotton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods: containing 
nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art 
of Padding ; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and 
Handkerchiefs, and the various Mordants and Colors for the 
different styles of such work. By David Smith, Pattern 
Dyer. 12mo., cloth. .... . . $3 00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 21 

OMITH.— PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS : 

Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public 
Parks, and Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape 
Gardener and Garden Architect, etc. etc. 12rao. . $2 25 

OTOKES.— CABINET-MAKER'S AND UPHOLSTERER'S COMPA.- 
° NION : 

Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making 
and Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, Illustrated by Ex- 
amples for attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as 
applicable to Cabinet-work; The Processes of Veneering, In- 
laying, and Buhl-work ; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, 
Bone, Tortoise Shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Japan- 
ning, and Varnishing ; to make French Polish ; to prepare the 
Best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a number of Re- 
ceipts particularly for workmen generally. By J. Stokes. In 
one vol. 12mo. With illustrations . . . . $1 25 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS. 

Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Proper- 
ties of Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines 
for Testing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in ser- 
vice. By Officers of the Ordnance Department U. S. Army. 
By authority of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large 
steel plates. In 1 vol. quarto $10 00 

iBLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE, AND 
FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC., 
By Measurement. Cloth 63 

AYLOR.— STATISTICS OF COAL : 

Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts 
and Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and 
Commercial Distribution and amount of Production and Con- 
sumption on the American Continent. With Incidental Sta- 
tistics of the Iron Manufacture. By R. C. Taylor. Second 
edition, revised by S. S. Haldeman. Illustrated by five Maps 
and many wood engravings. 8vo., cloth . . . $5 00 



T 



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3MPLET0N.— THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATOR ON STEAM 
AND THE STEAM-ENGINE : 
With Instructive References relative thereto, for the Use of 
Engineers, Students, and others. By Wm. Tebipleton, Engi- 
neer. 12mo $1 25 



22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

rp:iOMAS.— THE MODERN PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
X By R. W. Thomas, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth ... 75 

rpHOMSON.— FREIGHT CHARGES CALCULATOR. 

By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent . . . $1 25 

•JiJRNBULL.— THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELE GRAPH: 

With an Historical Account of its Rise, Progress, and Present 
Condition. Also, Practical Suggestions in regard to Insula- 
tion and Protection from the effects of Lightning. Together 
with an Appendix, containing several important Telegraphic 
Devices and Laws. By Lawrence Tnrnbull, M. D., Lectu- 
rer on Technical Chemistry at the Franklin Institute. Revised 
and improved. Illustrated. 8vo. . . . $3 00 

miRNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 

Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric 
Turning; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instru- 
ments ; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, 
Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest ; with Patterns and Instruc- 
tions for working them. A new edition in one vol. 12mo. 

' $1 50 

TTLRICH— DUSSAUCE.— A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE ART 
U OF DYEING COTTON AND WOOL: 

As practised in Paris, Rouen, Mulhausen, and Germany. 
From the French of M. Louis Ulrich, a Practical Dyer in 
the principal Manufactories of Paris, Rouen, Mulhausen, etc. 
etc. ; to which are added the most important Receipts for Dye- 
ing Wool, as practised in the Manufacture Impe'riale des Go- 
belins, Paris. By Professor H. Duesauce. 12mo. $3 00 

TTRBIN— -BRULL.— A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PUDDLING 

U IRON AND STEEL. 

By Ed. Urbin, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize 
Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of 
the School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 
1865 — 6. To which is added a Comparison of the Resisting 
Properties of Iron and Steel. By A. Brull. Translated 
from the French by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In 
one volume, 8vo. . . . . . . . $1 00 

WATSON.— A MANUAL OF THE HAND-LATHE. 

By Egbert P. Watson, Late of the "Scientific American," 
Author of " Modern Practice of American Machinists and 
Engineers." In one volume, 12mo. (In press.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 23 



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ATSON.— THE MODERN PRACTICE 0? AMERICAN MA- 
CHINISTS AND ENGINEERS : 
Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, 
Lathe Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow Work 
Generally, with the most Economical Speed of the same, the 
Results verified by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and 
on the Floor. Together with Workshop management, Economy 
of Manufacture, the Steam-Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc. 
etc. By Egbert P. Watson, late of the " Scientific American." 
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. 12mo. . . $2 50 

WATSON.— THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE ART OF 
VV WEAVING BY HAND AND POWER: 

With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected 
with the Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Prac- 
tical Machine Maker. Illustrated by large drawings of the 
best Power-Looms. 8vo. . . . . . $7 50 

WE ATHERLY.— TREATISE ON THE ART OF BOILING SU- 
VV GAR, CRYSTALLIZING, LOZENGE-MAKING, COMFITS, 
GUM GOODS, 

And other processes for Confectionery, &c. In which are ex- 
plained, in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods 
of Manufacturing every description of Raw and Refined sugar 
Goods, as sold by Confectioners and others . . $2 00 

LL.— TABLES FOR QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 
By Prof. Heinrich W'ill, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edi- 
tion. Translated by Charles F. Himes, Ph. D., Professor of 
Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. . $1 25 

ILLIAMS.— ON HEAT AND STEAM : 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and 
Expansion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illus- 
trated. 8vo 03 50 



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